Information from the Bureau of Land Management's  

Draft – Upper Klamath River Management Plan

Environmental Impact Statement

And Resource Management Plan

Volume 1 – Chapters

April 2003

Chapter 2 – Affected Environment

          General Setting and Access (pg S-11)

Precipitation is 15 – 20 inches coming mostly in fall, winter, and spring. Temperatures range from low 20s in winter to high 80s – 90s in summer.  

          Recreation – White Water Boating (pg S-12)  

One of the unique features of the Upper Klamath River is the extended season for whitewater boating provided as a result of year-round releases from J. C. Boyle Dam/Powerhouse system.  

 . .The primary rafting season on the Upper Klamath River extends from Memorial day through Labor Day.  

            (pg S-13)

Since the summer of 1998, PacificCorp has varied the water release schedule to include more releases that start later in the day, starting the release as late as 2-4 pm .  This change in scheduling reflects changing market conditions for wholesale electric power, as well as anticipated regional electric power shortages during summer heat waves.  

This shift in water release start times has impacted whitewater boating opportunities by either forcing boaters to launch their trips later in the day, or to cancel or postpone their trips due to the timing of the water release.  

          Fishing (pg S-13)  

The upper Klamath River within the planning area is managed as a wild trout river in both Oregon and California .  The river provides an excellent trout fishery and is among one of the better fly fishing rivers in Oregon.    

          Roads and Access (pg S-13)  

Public access to the planning area is currently on the Topsy and J.C. Boyle Powerhouse roads.  These roads provide the majority of access in the planning area.  

          Cultural Resources/Traditional Use (pg S-13)  

Cultural resources within the planning area are divided into three categories (1) prehistoric, (2) historic, and (3) current Native American traditional use.  

There are about 100 known prehistoric sites in the Upper Klamath River canyon.  There are fishing, gathering, and hunting camps, and pit house villages (pit houses are circular depressions reflecting a semi-subterranean prehistoric house structure).  

The area was home to a variety of cultural groups at different times, including the Shasta nation of northern California, the Modoc and Klamath Tribes of the Klamath Basin, the Takelma of the upper Rogue River, and possibly the Pit River Indians of northeastern California.  

Europeans have used the upper Klamath River Canyon extensively since the 1850s, settling on terraces and flood plains along the river and several meadow areas.  There are numerous historic ranches that have structures still standing that were constructed between the late 1800’s and early 1900’s.  

(pg S-14) Today, members of the Klamath Tribe and the Shasta Nation continue to use the canyon for spiritual purposes, hunting, fishing, gathering, and other cultural activities.  Many of the traditional use areas can be considered traditional cultural properties.  

Watershed Values (pg S-16)

          Beneficial Uses  

Among those roles are “beneficial uses,” as determined by Oregon Department of Environmental Quality.  Established beneficial uses for the upper Klamath River in Oregon include public and private domestic water supply; industrial water supply; irrigation; livestock watering; salmonid rearing and spawning; resident fish and aquatic life; wildlife and hunting; fishing; boating, and water contract recreation; and aesthetic quality.  

          Energy Generation and Transmission  

The planning area includes the portion of the Klamath River between two hydroelectric facilities: J.C. Boyle Dam in Oregon and Copco 1 Reservoir in California .  The J.C. Boyle Dam 88-megawatt power generation plant is 4.3 river miles below the dam.  This facility has turbine generators that supply power during high use (peak) periods.  

          Water Rights  

Water use in the Klamath River Basin upstream from, and within, the planning area affects streamflows in the Klamath River .  An adjudication process now being conducted by the Oregon Water Resources Department (OWRD) will determine surface water rights associated with the designated wild and scenic river.  This process will establish water right claims submitted by BLM.  

          Klamath River Instream Flows  

Within Segments 1 and 2, PacificCorp is licensed to divert up to 2,500 cfs of Klamath River water to generate hydroelectric power.  The utility also has two permits that allow a small diversion from the dam for irrigation, stock and domestic use.  

The BLM has filed a claim for instream flows in Segment 2 of the planning area based on the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of 1968.  In the Act, Congress expressly reserved water for flow-dependent outstandingly remarkable values.  Flows were claimed (Federal Reserve Claim 376, 1999) for three outstandingly remarkable values:  fisheries (625 cfs from April 1 through June 15, and 525 cfs for the rest of the year) and recreation (whitewater rafting, 1,500 cfs between Memorial Day and September 30).  The BLM water right claim on the River is pending in the Klamath Basin Adjudication.  

          Other Water Rights  

Other entities also have water claims and/or rights on the Klamath River , including the Oregon Department of Parks and Recreation, the Bureau of Indian Affairs (on behalf of the Klamath Tribes), the Oregon Department of Forestry, and private landowners.  The Klamath River Basin Compact also provides guidance, along with other applicable laws, for water rights administration in the Klamath Basin (see River Plan for further details).  

          Streamflows (pg S-17)    

The upstream end of the Klamath River drainage encompasses about 4,080 square miles of surrounding land.  Snowmelt in this drainage area flows mostly to Upper Klamath Lake , which creates late winter and spring naturally occurring peak flows to the Klamath River .  

Summer flows come from the Link River Dam (on Upper Klamath lake ), and groundwater discharges.  Elevated flows in fall are caused by return flow from irrigated areas south and west of Klamath Falls .  

The other primary cause of streamflow variance is the operation of the J.C. Boyle hydroelectric facilities.  Flow varies according to water availability, instream flow requirements for salmon (listed under the Endangered Species Act) downstream from Iron Gate Dam, and PacificCorp’s FERC license.  

Flows in Segment 1 are not subject to the daily fluctuations that occur in Segments 2 and 3 from powerhouse operations.  

Energy demand (and subsequent hydroelectric plant use) can determine the amount of flow in the river.  When daily average natural river flows are less than around 3,300 cfs, the facility can increase flow to produce power during peak energy demand period which is called “peaking”.  On days when the J.C. Boyle complex is operated for peaking power, stage (change in river surface elevation) can be raised or lowered about 2.2 feet over a 6-hour period.  

          Water Quality  

Water Quality, which as previously mentioned, is designated “water quality limited” under terms of the Clean Water Act, is affected by upstream point and nonpoint pollutant sources in the area.

Some examples of characteristics that limit water quality in the planning area are high algal content, high pH, temperature, chlorophyll-a, and dissolved oxygen.  These may detrimentally affect beneficial uses and outstandingly remarkable values (including fisheries, recreation, and wildlife).  

Aquatic Species/Habitat (pg S-17)  

The dams on the Klamath River have affected fish species distribution throughout the Klamath Basin .  Historically, the Klamath River was a passageway for anadromous fish, salmon, steelhead, and Pacific lamprey as they migrated to various tributaries of the Klamath River and Upper Klamath Lake (ODFW 1997).  These fish runs were halted in 1910 by the construction of Copco 1 Dam, completed in 1917, which permanently blocked fish passage (City of Klamath Falls 1986).  Five more dams were built on the upper Klamath River ; Copco II and Iron Gate are located in California , and Link River, Keno, and J.C. Boyle Dams are located in Oregon (PacificCorp 2000).  J.C. Boyle, Keno, and Link River Dams have fish ladders intended for trout migration, each varying in function.  Only J.C. Boyle Dam has a screening facility to prevent entrainment of fish into the power diversion canal.

(pg S-18) The hydroelectric project on the upper Klamath River will be assessed for reintroduction of anadromous species through the hydroelectric facilities as part of the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission relicensing process.  

The upper Klamath River is inhabited by 10 known native fish species.  Three species of note are: redband trout – the primary game fish in the Klamath River , Lost River sucker – (state and federally listed endangered species). and shortnose sucker – (state and federally listed endangered species).  

Other native species are Klamath smallscale sucker, blue and tui chub, Klamath specked dace, sculpin species, and lamprey species.  

At least fourteen exotic species occur in the river and reservoirs.  Yellow perch, fathead minnows, Sacramento perch, and golden shiner typically favor slower water habitats including slackwater shoals close to Copco Reservoir, and generally are not found in swift flowing portions of the river (USDI-BLM 1990).  Although not documented by fisheries specialists, there have been at least two reports of white sturgeon in the planning area.  White sturgeon was planted in Upper Klamath Lake in 1956 (ODFW 1997).  Brown trout, planted in Copco Reservoir, inhabit and migrate through the California reach to spawn in Shovel Creek (DCFG 2000).  Steelhead, planted into Copco Reservoir 1971 – 1981 (excepting 1975, 1977, and 1978) has been reported from the California portion of the Klamath in the past.  

Range Resources (pg S-18)

Cattle, wildlife, and a small herd of wild horses currently compete for forage in the planning area.  U.S. Timberlands, PacificCorp, and BLM-administered lands are used for grazing in and around the planning area.  Hay production is also common on privately-owned (PacificCorp) meadows in the planning area in California .  

Two BLM grazing allotments exist within the planning area; Edge Creek Allotment (#0102) and Laubacher Lease Allotment (#0155), and grazing occurs on private lands.  

Wildfire Management (pg S-19)  

Lightning occurrence in the Klamath River Canyon caused 20 lightning ignitions from 1990 to 1999.  The fire return interval for the conifer forest/woodland type is every 10 to 20 years.  The estimated fire return interval for oak woodlands in this type of canyon terrain is 5 to 15 years.  

Exclusion of natural fire in the Klamath Canyon has resulted in high fuel loading and created conditions where the potential for wildfire occurrence is increased.

Socioeconomics (pg S-19)  

“The major sources of income are agriculture, government, and tourism.”  

Chapter 3 – Oregon Scenic Waterways Administrative Rules (pg S-21)  

The Oregon Scenic Waterways System was created by ballot initiative in 1970.  

Scenic waterway management plans (administrative rules) are developed to protect or enhance the aesthetic and scenic values of scenic waterways, while allowing compatible agriculture, forestry, and other land uses.  

          Existing Condition  

The Klamath River from the J.C. Boyle Powerhouse to the Oregon-California state line was designated a scenic waterway in 1988.  Ownership within this corridor is 75 percent BLM, 23 percent private, and 2 percent State of Oregon .

Klamath County has zoned the private lands within the scenic waterway corridor as “forestry.”  

To date, uses in the canyon have been primarily recreation, range, and timber management.  

Chapter 1 – Introduction

          Management Direction and Management Goals (pg 9)  

          Relationships and Implications Regarding Klamath Basin Water Issues (pg 13)  

PacificCorp, the owners of the Klamath Hydroelectric Project ( Big Bend #2082) are applying to the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) for a new license.  The current license was issued in 1956 for 50 years, and will expire in March of 2006.  John C. Boyle Dam and power plant are located within the proposed River planning area boundary.  The final river Plan will identify resource impacts and mitigations regarding the PacificCorp operations of their facilities to fish, recreation, cultural, and wildlife resources.  These impacts (both negative and positive) need to be considered during the FERC relicensing process.  The final River Plan is scheduled to be completed in 2004 before FERC begins an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) in 2004 on the relicensing of the Klamath Hydroelectric Project #2082.  The final River Plan will contain important resource information and provide a basis for alternative development for FERC’s EIS.  

All water issues (both quantity and quality) and fisheries (both inland and anadromous fisheries) are controversial in the Klamath Basin.  Water and fishery proposed actions are addressed in the River Plan and have no direct or indirect impacts that would influence the Bureau of Reclamation’s Klamath River Anadromous Fish Restoration and Operation Plan or the Environmental Protection Agency/State Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) development process.   

Chapter 1 – Introduction

          The Planning Process (pg 18)  

          Identification of Issues (pg 20)  

          Wildlife and Fisheries (pg 22)  

Wildlife: There are threatened and endangered (bald eagle), and special status species (western pond turtle, Townsend big-eared bat, and white headed woodpecker, etc.) that use the river corridor.  Habitat for these species would be evaluated to determine the type of management needed to protect or enhance the survival of these species.  This plan addressed unique wildlife habitat, such as big game winter habitat and oak woodlands.  The impacts from wildlife habitat enhancement projects to scenic values and impacts to wildlife from other resource management practices would also be addressed.  

Fisheries:  Fisheries is one of the outstandingly remarkable values that earned the Klamath River its designation as a wild and scenic river.  Management concerns deal with the endangered Lost River and shortnose suckers and special status Klamath redband trout that use the river.  

The river has been designated as a wild trout fishery.  The planning area is also within the historic range of the threatened and endangered coho salmon.  There are management concerns regarding the passage of both resident fish and fish that enter the river to swim upstream and spawn.  

There are also recreational trout fishing concerns surrounding the lack of large fish within the river.  There is evidence that the water peaking (repetitious high flows), which optimize generation of power from J.C. Boyle Dam, impacts the aquatic habitat for fisheries on the stretches analyzed under this plan.  There maybe opportunities to improve fish habitat.  There is speculation that the variation in water flows (for power generation), or the design of the hydropower project may affect the size of fish.  

Chapter 2 – Affected Environment

          Description of Affected Resources and Facilities (pg 28)

                   Whitewater Boating (pg 29)  

One of the unique features of the upper Klamath River is the late season whitewater boating opportunity provided as a result of year-round releases from Boyle Dam/Powerhouse system.  At least one generator must be operating to provide adequate flows for whitewater rafting.  

Since the summer of 1998, PacificCorp has varied the release schedule to include more releases that start later in the day, staring the release as late as 2-4 p.m.   This change scheduling reflects changing market conditions for wholesale electric power, as well as anticipated regional electric power shortages during summer heat waves.  

(pg 30) Historically, the Boyle Powerhouse was shut down for two weeks in July each year to perform maintenance; however, in recent years this maintenance work has been shifted to September to avoid the prime rafting season (BLM).  During winter and spring both generators operate, increasing the flows to 2,500 cfs or higher.  

(pg 31)  “(from) RM 214.3 to 209.3, the river drops 77 feet per mile.”  “(from) RM 209.3 to 204, (the river) drops 32 feet per mile."  

          Cultural Resources and Traditional Uses (pg 37)  

Cultural resources within the planning area are divided into three categories (1) prehistoric, (2) historic, and (3) current Native American traditional use.  Prehistoric resources are associated with Native Americans and date before the time of contact with European settlers (A.D. 1850).  Information about these resources is recovered through scientific archaeological investigations and oral histories.  Historic resources date after A.D. 1850 and are more than 50-years old.  In the planning area they are associated with early stagecoach and freight travel, early ranching and logging activities, and in one case, scared use by Native Americans.  

          Prehistoric  

Archaeological surveys, excavations, and artifact analyses have been conducted within the planning area over the last 43 years.  Initial investigations by the University of Oregon in the late 1950s were prompted by the construction of the Boyle Powerhouse and Dam (Newman and Cressman 1959).  Later, as part of the proposed Salt Caves Hydroelectric Project, the City of Klamath Falls (1984-1986) surveyed land and test excavated 20 sites within the planning area.  

The Upper Klamath River Canyon Project started in 1992, to collect the canyon’s ecosystem data and develop a land use history of the area.  Surveys, excavations, and analyses have provided information about prehistoric activities in the canyon.  Consultation with Native Americans has yielded information on prehistory  . . . and its relation to the lives and culture of living people, and enhanced the scope of our understanding of the prehistoric use of the canyon.  

Over 100 prehistoric sites have been located in the upper Klamath River Canyon .  The wide variety of known sites within the river corridor demonstrates intense prehistoric use of the canyon by Native Americans.  Use of the canyon . . . dates back to at least 5500 B.C. (per oral history); however, archaeological data indicates that most of the sites  . . . were occupied from A.D. 900 to A.D. 1850 (Late Prehistoric Period) (Mack 1995).  

(pg 38) Ethnographic accounts (Silver 1978; Spier 1930; Kroeber 1925; Gleason 2001) and artifacts recovered from sites within the planning area indicate the area was used by a variety of cultural groups and at different times.  One group has been identified as the Shasta Nation of northern California .  

In addition, the federally recognized Modoc and Klamath Tribes . . . , the Takelma of the upper Rogue River, and possibly the Pit River Indians of northeastern California are known to have used the area.  Common to all of these Tribes was the use of winter pit house villages, hunting and fishing camps, and a subsistence pattern in which anadromous fish, acorns (where available), large and small mammals, and various plants were major parts of their diet.  

(pg 39) The wide range of artifacts from sites in the planning area shows that use of the canyon by different Tribes changed over the last 2,000 years.  This is important because it shows that territorial boundaries between the different Tribes using the canyon did not remain the same through time (an assumption often made about the boundaries of prehistoric culture areas), but changed as each group expanded or decreased its Tribal area.

          Historic (pg 39)  

After the 1850’s, Native Americans continued to use the canyon for hunting, fishing, gathering, spiritual purposes, trade, and inter-Tribal communications.  However, due to encroachment by Euro Americans, their activities were not as prevalent as in prehistoric times.  Ethnographic and Euro American historic accounts (see Theodoratus et al, 1989) present only a generalized level of information concerning historic use by Native Americans.  

Consultations (oral) with Native Americans yield a different perspective on historic use of the area.  This perspective reflects a continuous link between prehistoric and historic cultural and spiritual uses, a linkage that has continued into the present; tying the lives of members of the Klamath Tribes and Shasta Nation with those of their ancestors who once inhabited the canyon.  

Ethnographic investigations in association with archaeological research (City of Klamath Falls 1985) have identified use of one village site for religious ceremonies associated with the 1870 Ghost Dance, a Native American religious cult that first developed in the early 1870’s on the Great Plains and then spread to the Tribes in the west.  Ceremonies were conducted so the deceased would return to the earth and help the living Native Americans regain control of their destiny.  This religious doctrine was apparently transmitted from the Klamath Tribe, down the Klamath River , to the northern California Tribes (Spier 1927).  This Ghost Dance site was probably part of the southward spread of the religion.  

The upper Klamath River Canyon has been used extensively by Europeans since the 1850’s.  The terraces and flood plains along the river and several meadow areas above the river were excellent locations for agricultural and ranching activities.  These areas were the focus of European settlers in the canyon.  

pg 40) The earliest European explorers in the vicinity of the planning area were members of Peter Skene Ogden’s Hudson Bay Company expedition of 1826 – 27 (LaLande 1987).  In their search for fur-bearing animals in southern Oregon, Ogden ’s party traveled along the western canyon rim (within the planning area).  Unable to access the river because of the steep canyon wall, the explorers left the canyon rim near RM 222.5.  Traveling southwest across the Pokegama Plateau (the area north of the river) the party again reached the river near Copco Reservoir and continued westward through the Cascade Range (LaLande 1987).  Thirty years later (1856) Mart Frain, a noteworthy local figure, followed the river northward from the mining town of Yreka, California, to the Klamath Basin.  Upon reaching the Klamath Basin, Frain began the first trade with local Native Americans.  

Settlement and ranching started in the 1860s when one of the first settlers, A. M. Johnson homesteaded near the Klamath Hot Springs in 1860 (Hessig 1978).  Settlement increased after the construction of the Topsy Road in the 1870’s. (Bartoy 1995).  

The Topsy Road, a stagecoach freight road, is a prominent historical landmark of the planning area.  Topsy Road parallels the river for 11.4 miles (5.1 miles in Segment 2, 6.3 miles in Segment 3) on the south and east side of the river.  Bisecting the Cascade Range, this road was officially opened for wagon and stage travel in 1875 between Yreka , California, and the Klamath Basin.

However, as early as 1865, freight for Fort Klamath was carried up the river canyon along a route closely approximating Topsy Road.  Topsy Road underwent three construction periods (1) initial construction from 1874 to 1875; (2) a second construction period in 1887; when the steepness of the grade was lessened; and (3) the final period of construction in 1890 when  Topsy Road and Topsy Grade were cut into a vertical basalt face.  From 1875 to the early 1900’s, when the road to Ashland, Oregon, was improved, and the railroad reached Klamath Falls via a route east of the river canyon, Topsy Road provided the only year-round access to Klamath Falls and to towns east of the Klamath Basin.  

Daily travel occurred with an overnight stop at the Beswick Hotel and Klamath Hot Springs in Segment 3, and livery stops at the Way Station Ranch (0.5-mile north of the California/Oregon state line in Segment 2) and Overlong Station, which is above Topsy Grade.  

The Beswick Hotel and Klamath Hot Springs complex in Segment 3 provided a popular overnight stop for stage passengers and freight drivers, as well as a vacation resort/health spa.  The resort had a hotel, post office, store, saloon, swimming pool, restorative hot springs, dance pavilion, stables, plus living quarters for employees.  

In its heyday as a famous spa, the hot springs were visited by such noted guests as President Herbert Hoover, author Zane Gray, and pilot Amelia Earhart.  The first Beswick Hotel was constructed around 1870; a second hotel, built in 1887, was destroyed by fire in 1915.  

Stones from the second hotel were used to construct a dance pavilion around 1920; this, too, was destroyed by fire.  The post office, store, and saloon, all housed within the same building, swimming pool; stables; and living quarters for the resort employees are still standing today and are visible from the road and river.  

Way Station, a livery stable and log cabin associated with travel o Topsy Road , is still standing.  The location of Overton Station, another livery stop, is identified by several poplar trees above Topsy Grade.  

Two additional historic ranch sites are found along Topsy Road; Kerwin Ranch, where the foundations and apple orchard are still visible, and the Frain Ranch, purchased by Mart Frain in (pg 41) 1888 and deeded to his three sons in 1893.  The Frain Ranch contains the visible remains of a log cabin, root cellar, barn, and garage.  The orchard, pasture lands, and the log cabin are visible from the river.  

A pioneer cemetery, the Way Cemetery, is located off Topsy Road and contains the graves of Mart Frain and members of the Way, Ward, Ovelton, and Hoover families (all early ranching families).  Topsy School, at the foot of Topsy Grade, was attended by children of the nearby ranches and logging camps.  

All located within Segment 2, these historic sites display historical markers containing brief, descriptive accounts, courtesy of the local historical society.  Two other historic ranches within Segment 2, the Hoover and Butler Ranches are on the west side of the river.  

In addition to being a communication and travel corridor, the upper Klamath River played a major role in the logging operations of the area.  The first cutting of timber started in the 1860s.  Nearby ranchers and farmers cut posts for fences, poles and lumber for building construction, and fuelwood for home heating.  The first commercial cutting was done in 1888 on the Oregon side north of the river, east of Hoover Ranch, and south of the river around Kerwin Ranch.  Logs were pulled by horses along a ground-level chute made of logs braced side-by-side, to a landing at the rivers edge.  These logs were floated to a mill at Pokegema (later Klamathon), California, in 1891 (Helfrich 1966).  

A major engineering feature of these logging activities was a wooden log chute, known as the Pokegama log cute, which was cut into the western canyon wall in Segment 3 and put into operation in 1892.  For ten years, logs were brought from the Pokegama Plateau by train and unloaded at the top of the chute.

The logs were pushed onto the chute, and by gravity, slid down into the river.  The logs were then floated down the river to the mill at the town of Klamathon .  At the height of its operation, 300 logs per day were carried down the 2,000-foot chute and over 100 men were employed along the river to facilitate movement of the logs downstream

Today the only reminder of the log chute is a cut at the top of the canyon rim and a scar where the chute cut through the hillside, which are both visible from the river and Topsy road.

          Native American Traditional Uses (pg 41)  

Traditional use by Native Americans of the upper Klamath River Canyon began before contact with Euro Americans and has continued into the present.  Today, members of the Klamath Tribe and the Shasta Nation continue to use the canyon for spiritual purposes, hunting, fishing, gathering, and other cultural activities.  

Many of the traditional use areas can be considered traditional cultural properties.  A traditional cultural property is defined as a property that ‘is eligible for inclusion in the National Register because of its association with cultural practices or beliefs of a living community that (a) are rooted in the community’s history, and (b) are important in maintaining the continuing cultural identity of the community’ (National Register Bulletin No. 38).  

The Klamath and Shasta consider the river and canyon sacred because of their historical use by Tribal ancestors and present day use by Tribal members.  From a spiritual perspective, the river expresses the values of life to the Klamath Tribes.  

Innumerable stone cairns throughout the canyon attest to its long and continued spiritual use.  These cairns are pages in the Klamath People’s history, a very real conduit to the lives and spirits of those who walked the earth in the near and distant past.  Further, the land and river are spiritually powerful to the Klamath People.  

(pg 42) In the Native American world view, unlike that of Euro Americans, the land and the lives of the people who inhabit it are inextricably intertwined; to destroy the land is to unravel the fabric of life in which the people live.  The upper Klamath River is one of the few parts of the region left that has been relatively untouched by development over the past 150 years.  For the Klamath and their neighboring Tribes, the river and its canyon are very much a part of what makes them a people (Klamath Tribe 1989, personal communication).  

A similar value of the river canyon is expressed by the Shasta Nation; to them this area represents a crucial link with the spiritual world:  

“For generations individual members, our spiritual leaders, and medicine persons  have traveled to these burials to communicate with the Great Creator, to perform rituals, and to prepare for specific religious and medicinal ceremonies.  The area contains places where our medicine people ascend, as they have throughout history, to their position  . . . the first medicine power was received there, and the first practitioners of that power were brought forth and taught there . . .   “Guidance for daily life and for crises that individuals in the Tribe must face comes from those sites” (Hall 1985.)  

“The various forms of spiritual use of an area by Native Americans do not fall within categories readily familiar to religions of western society.  Religious use of a particular area encompasses a wide range of elements and observances.  "

Rituals can be practiced on an individual level where a person observes a particular practice as part of their daily activities.  Small group observances might involve a family group with a religious specialist (shaman/doctor) who with esoteric knowledge has special access to supernatural power often used for curing or life-crisis events (for example, the death of a loved one).  Other rituals and ceremonies involve the participation of all society’s members in events considered to be vital to the society as a whole (essential resources such as fish, acorns, and epos).  These larger rituals renew and emphasize members’ needs for, and dependence on, the total society.  The rituals must be performed properly according to well-established rites that involved time, place, and symbolic objects (Theodoratus et al. 1989). 

The concept of spiritual/supernatural powers is a basic element in all Native American religions practiced in the planning area.  Native Americans in the planning area had/have strong development of the religious concepts through their intimate day-to-day contact with the environment (trees, rocks, springs, weather, shapes, and animal life, etc.) many, which potentially contained power.  Spirit-quests by individuals at special locations embodied with supernatural qualities were/are important (Theodoratus et al. 1989).  

Native Americans also value the canyon for other important cultural activities.  The river area has long been used for fishing, gathering, and hunting; as a meeting place between the area’s various Tribes and bands; as shared fishing villages; and as a site of inter-Tribal exchange and communication.  There are no instream water rights for the Native Americans who use the Klamath River within the planning area.  The area also contains archaeological and environmental information and material that sheds light upon the culture and history of the Klamath, their neighbors, and their ancestors (Klamath Tribe 1989, personal communication).  

          Watershed Values (pg 60)  

Water resources are a key component in shaping the animal and plant communities found within the planning area, and in providing recreation opportunities.  Factors discussed in this section include beneficial uses and resource values, energy generation, water rights, stream flows, water quality (including that of Upper Klamath Lake and upstream segments of the Klamath River), and aquatic habitat.  

Although the river within the planning area is the primary focus of examination, upstream conditions substantially affect this portion of the river.  Additionally, tributary streams contribute streamflow to the river and provide habitat.  Where relevant, characteristics of these streams will be discussed in the appropriate sections of this chapter.  

                   Beneficial Uses  

The appropriation of surface waters within the Klamath Basin is governed by Oregon and California law, and the “ Klamath River Basin Compact” (Oregon Revised Statutes 542.620).  The Compact became effective in 1957 upon ratification by Oregon and California and acceptance by the U.S. Congress.  Article III of the Compact addresses beneficial uses in the Klamath River Basin.  

The Oregon Department of Environmental Quality (ODEQ) has expanded upon these beneficial uses for the purpose of developing water quality management programs for the upper Klamath River (Oregon Administrative Rules 350-41-962).  Established beneficial uses include public and private domestic water supply; industrial water supply; irrigation; livestock watering; salmonid rearing and spawning; resident fish and aquatic life; wildlife and hunting; fishing, boating, and water contact recreation; and esthetic quality.  

The North Coast Regional Water Quality Control Board has established beneficial uses for the California portion of the Klamath River .  These are broadly categorized as water supply, recreation, fish and wildlife habitat, power generation, and scientific study.  Specific existing a potential beneficial uses for the Klamath River between the state line and Iron Gate Dam have also been outlined.  Existing beneficial uses include municipal and domestic supply, agricultural supply, groundwater recharge, freshwater replenishment, commercial and sport  fishing, hydropower generation, navigation, water contact and non-contact recreation, warm freshwater habitat, cold freshwater habitat, fish migration, fish spawning, and wildlife habitat (North Coast Regional Water Quality Control Board 1994).  

          Water Rights  

Water use upstream from and within the planning area affects streamflows in the Klamath River .  The Oregon Water Resources Department (OWRD) is currently conducting an Oregon general stream adjudication for the Oregon portion of the Klamath River Basin.  An adjudication is the Oregon statutory process for quantification and determination of all rights to surface water, the use of which is initiated before February 24, 1909 (the date the surface water code in Oregon was established) and federal reserved water rights.  The reserved water rights claims submitted by federal agencies and the Klamath Tribes will be determined through this process.  

The OWRD process for acquiring water rights under state law has three steps.  Prior to receiving a water right certificate, a water user must first apply for, and then receive , a water (pg 61) rights permit.  In order to “prove up” on the permit, a water user must begin putting the water to beneficial use.  Following this period, the OWRD determines whether to issue a “perfected” water rights certificate (OWRD, 2001).  

          Klamath River  

Within the Oregon portion of the study area (Segment 1 and 2), PacificCorp is licensed to divert up to 2,500 cubic feet per second (cfs) of Klamath River water for the operation of the J. C. Boyle hydroelectric project (Hydroelectric Commission of Oregon 1965).  The discrepancy between the hydraulic capacity of the powerhouse (3,000 cfs) and the licensed diversion volume (2,500 cfs) will be addressed during the FERC re-licensing process.  

In addition, PacificCorp has other pre-1909 water rights claims that were acquired with the with the purchase of land adjacent to the river.  Two permits allow diversions from the Klamath River for irrigation, stock, and domestic use.  The volume of water that could be withdrawn by these permits is an insignificant portion of the total river discharge (less then approximately 10 cfs).  

The BLM has filed a claim for instream flows in Segment 2 of the planning area based on the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of 1968.  In the Act, Congress expressly reserved water for flow-dependent outstandingly remarkable values.  Flows were claimed (Federal Reserve Claim 376,1999) for two outstandingly remarkable values: fisheries (625 cfs from April 1 through June 15, and 525 cfs for the rest of the year), and recreation (whitewater rafting, 1,500 cfs between Memorial Day and September 30) (see table 2-12).  The BLM water right claim on the Klamath River is pending on the Klamath Basin Adjudication.  

The Oregon Department of Parks and Recreation and the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife (ODFW) applied to the Water Resources Department in 1989 for an instream water right on the Klamath Scenic Waterway (Segment 2).  Based on the release regime from the J. C. Boyle Powerhouse, the application requests 1,500 cfs for recreation and 550 cfs (not additive) for fish populations and habitat.  This application is still pending.  

The Bureau of Indian Affairs, on behalf of the Klamath Tribes, has claimed (Federal Reserve Claim 671, 1999) for future use 700 cfs year-round to provide adequate migratory passage of anadromous salmonid fishes into and out of the Upper Klamath River Basin (should the former range of the anadromous fish habitat be restored).   

Within the California portion of the planning area (Segment 3), the California State Water Resources Control Board currently does not have any water use applications or claim of rights on file.  Private land owners within Segment 3 exercise pre-1914 water rights to divert water from the main stem and from  Shovel and Negro Creeks to irrigate pastureland and hay fields.  

(pg 62) The “Klamath River Basin Compact,” provides guidance along with other applicable laws for water rights administration in the Klamath Basin.  The major purposes of the Compact, as stated in Article I, are:  

A.      To facilitate and promote the orderly, integrated and comprehensive development, use, conservation and control thereof for various purposes, including, among others” the use of water for domestic purposes; the development of lands by irrigation and other means; the protection and enhancement of fish, wildlife, and recreational resources; the use of water for industrial purposes and hydroelectric power production; and the use and control of water for navigation and flood prevention.  

B.      To further intergovernmental cooperation and comity with respect to these resources and programs for their use and development and to remove causes of present and future controversies by providing (1) for equitable distribution and use of water among the two states and the federal government, (2) for preferential rights to use of water after the effective date of this compact for the anticipated ultimate requirements for domestic and irrigation purposes in the upper Klamath River Basin in Oregon and California, and (3) for prescribed relationships between beneficial uses of water as a practicable means of accomplishing such distribution and use.  

Tributary Streams  

The Oregon State Department of Forestry has a permit to use up to 10,000 gallons of water per day for dust abatement from an unnamed tributary of the Klamath River near the Topsy Road in Segment 2.  An irrigation diversion is located on Hayden Creek, but is not currently used.  

In Segment 3, water is diverted from the mainstem of Shovel Creek in two locations and from near the mouth of Negro Creek (a tributary of Shovel Creek) in one location.  From April 15 to October 15. These diversions supply up to 15 cfs to irrigated meadows along the lower portion of Shovel Creek (Ichisaka 2001, personal communication).  This constitutes a relatively large percentage of total stream discharge during the summer baseflow period.  Water rights for these diversions are based on California's doctrine of riparian water rights.  

Streamflows (pg 62)  

          Klamath River  

          General  

The Klamath River begins at the outlet of Upper Klamath Lake and flows to the Pacific Ocean .  At the upstream end of Segment 2, the river drains approximately 4,080 square miles (not including the Lost River sub-basin, which occasionally overflows into the Klamath River drainage). 

Late winter and spring peak flows are derived primarily from snowmelt in the drainage area of Upper Klamath Lake and subsequent releases from Link River Dam.  Summer flows in the river are derived from releases at Link River Dam, groundwater discharge from volcanic aquifers, and some return flow.  Elevated flows in fall and early winter are a result of return flow from irrigated areas south and west of Klamath Falls (BHI 1996.  

The Klamath Reclamation Project operated by the Bureau of Reclamation (USBR), supplies water to about 240,000 acres of irrigated land and a smaller area of national wildlife refuge lands.  Diversion of water for use by the USBR Project began in 1905.  In 1961, the completed USBR Project facilities were fully operational (USBR 2000).  

(pg 62) Compared to pre-USBR Project conditions, flow regulation at Upper Klamath Lake results in higher and earlier peak flows in the Klamath River , decreased summer minimum flows, and greater annual flow variability (BHI 1996).  In the planning area, these effects commingle with the effects of diversions and releases related to hydropower generation.

          Flow Modification Due To Operation of the J. C. Boyle Facility  

The operation of the J. C. Boyle facility varies according to water availability, instream flow requirements for ESA-listed salmon downstream from Iron Gate Dam (RM 190), and PacifiCorp’s FERC license.  

A minimum flow of 100 cfs is released at J. C. Boyle Dam to provide instream flow for fish movement through Segment 1.  In addition to this continuous outflow at the dam, a series of springs in the riverbed between the dam and the powerhouse (located near RM 223) add another estimated 225 cfs of flow (on average), which maintains a relatively constant flow of approximately 325 cfs during summer.  Flows in Segment 1 between the dam and the powerhouse are not subject to the daily fluctuations that occur in Segments 2 and 3 that result from powerhouse operations.  

One, both, or neither of the turbines at the J. C. Boyle Powerhouse may be generating electricity at any given moment, depending on energy demand and water availability.  When daily average river flows are less then about 3,300 cfs, the J. C. Boyle facility is operated to produce power during periods of peak energy demand (PacificCorp 2000).  This type of operation is referred to as “peaking” or “load following.”  

When neither turbine is in use, water flowing into J. C. Boyle Reservoir is stored for later use.  As a result of peaking operations, streamflow and water surface elevations (“stage”) in the river below the powerhouse can fluctuate throughout the day.  Stage fluctuations below the dam and powerhouse are limited to a 9 inch per hour ramp rate, as per the 1956 FERC license (PacificCorp 2000).  Depending on flow levels, this equates to changes in discharge that range from 400 cfs per hour, to approximately 950 cfs per hour (see Figure 2-1).  

          Daily Average Streamflows  

Streamflows have been measured since January 1959 by the USGS at a gauging station  0.7 mile below the J. C. Boyle Powerhouse (USGS gage 11510700).  The streamflow record at this gage is representative of flows in Segments 2 and 3, although flows through Segment 3 are slightly higher and slightly less variable then flows in Segment 2, due to tributary inflow from Shovel Creek (10 to 100 cfs), Hayden Creek, and minor intermittent tributaries.  

For this planning effort the data set has been converted to water years, which are defined by the USGS as beginning on October 1 and ending the following September 30, and are designated by the calendar year in which the water year ends.  Data is not available for water years 1972-74, 1980-82, and 1988.  

Average daily discharge data from water years 1967 through 2000 show an average annual flow of 1,839 cfs.  Mean monthly flow data show that average monthly flows are higher December through April and lowest June through September (Table 2-13).  Average daily discharges in the 300 to 400 cfs range can occur any month of the year, as can average daily discharges greater than 1,600 cfs.  

          Daily Fluctuations in Streamflow and Stage  

Peaking operations cause significant daily stage and discharge fluctuations in the river.  The effects of daily powerhouse operations on streamflow were analyzed using discharge data collected every 30 minutes at the USGS J. C. Boyle gage.  This analysis was limited to January and July 2000, which are representative average winter and summer flows.  

During low flow periods (summer/fall), there is typically only one turbine generating for a portion of any given day.  On a daily basis during the low flow season, discharge below the (pg 65) powerhouse generally ranges from 300 to 400 cfs (baseflow, composed of outflow from the dam and contributions from springs) to approximately 1,500 cfs (baseflow plus turbine throughflow).  When there is sufficient water and consumer demand both turbines may be used, and flows can ramp from baseflow to 3,000 cfs within a few hours (see Figure 2-2).  Alternatively, there may be days when no water is released in excess of the minimum bypass flow.  

Discharge in Segments 2 and 3 is more variable during the high flow season (late winter/early spring) than during the low flow season (see Figure 2-2).  As a consequence of tributary inflows, baseflow increases to approximately 700 cfs.  Higher average daily flows allow frequent two-turbine peaking during this period.  Depending on how the J. C. Boyle complex is operated, discharge fluctuations within a 24-hour period can range from 50 to more then 2,500 cfs.  

Flow ramping causes river levels downstream from the powerhouse to vary widely on a daily basis.  These effects persist for the length of Segments 2 and 3. Measurements at the USGS gauging stating indicate that daily fluctuations (at this site) during the low flow season may exceed 2.5 feet. Though fluctuations on the order of 1.75 feet are more common.  Portions of the streambed are dewatered and exposed during intervals when no poser is generated.  As with discharge, stage fluctuations during the high flow season are more variable.  On days when the J. C. Boyle complex is operated for peaking power, stage can be raised or lowered by approximately 2.2 feet over a 6-hour period.  Conversely, when the complex generates power at a steady rate there is no appreciable stage variation.  Because stage fluctuations vary according to channel geometry, the magnitude of stage fluctuations in Segments 2 and 3 is not constant between different locations; in confined reaches of the river, fluctuations may be higher, while in reaches with low beaches, fluctuation may be lower.  

          Peak Flows  

Floods with recurrence intervals of about 1.5 years are generally considered to be the most geomorphically effective (Dunn and Leopold 1978).  Analysis of peak flow data from the USGS J. C. Boyle gage suggests that flows of between 3,100 and 4,700 cfs occur about every 1.5 years in Segments 2 and 3.  Spills from J. C. Boyle Dam into Segment 1 occur in about tow out of every three years.  Due to flow regulations and diversions, peak flows in Segment 1 are currently of lower magnitude and shorter duration then would occur were the river unregulated.  The largest peak flow recorded at the J. C. Boyle gage occurred in February 1996.  Discharge during this flood exceeded 11,500 cfs.  

          Tributary Streams with the Planning Area  

One large seep complex and two relatively large perennial streams enter the river in the planning area, as well as numerous smaller streams and springs.  Depending on the season, total accretions between J. C. Boyle Dam and the slack water of Copco Reservoir range approximately from 230 cfs to 700 cfs.  The greatest portion of this inflow occurs in Segment 1, where an extensive zone of seepage into the riverbed contributes, on average, about 225 cfs to the river (Hand and Gerlach 1964; PacificCorp 2000).  Except for this seepage zone, the magnitude of tributary inflows are relatively minor and of much more importance locally (as coldwater refugia, for example) than on the scale of the Klamath River as a whole.  

Shovel Creek enters the Klamath River near RM 206.  Although Shovel Creek drains a large watershed (51 square miles), most summer flow is derived from springs in the Negro Creek and Bear Creek drainages.  As discussed above, a substantial portion of summer baseflow is diverted for irrigation use near the mouth of Shovel Creek.  Winter peak flows are on the order of 100 cfs (PacificCorp 2000).  The summer base flows are about 20 cfs when irrigation diversions are not in use (Beyer 1984).  

            (Page 66 is Figure 2-2. Daily Hydrographs Below J. C. Boyle Powerhouse)  

(pg 67) Hayden Creek drains approximately 28 square miles and has fewer springs than the Shovel Creek drainage.  Measured summer discharges about two miles upstream from its mouth are on the order of 0.5 cfs.  There are no active diversions from Hayden Creek within the planning area, although the stream intersects an irrigation ditch (diverted from the river) at its mouth.  

Peak flows from Hayden Creek and Edge Creek have been estimated using a variety of methods – refer to the “Topsy Pokegama Landscape Analysis” (BLM 1996) for this information.  

The hydrologic cycle in tributary watersheds within the planning area has likely been affected by the extensive road network.  Roads can change infiltration rates, intercept and divert subsurface flow, change the drainage area of small streams, and decrease the time it take for runoff to reach streams.  This can cause peak flows to increase (Furniss et al. 1991).  Incision of streams into their floodplains has also affected baseflows, due to the loss of the “sponge effect” of the floodplains.  

Water Quality (pg 67)  

          Klamath River  

          Water Quality Standards  

Water quality standards have been set by the ODEQ for Klamath Basin waters and specifically for the Klamath River from Upper Klamath Lake to the state line (Oregon Administrative Rules 340-41-965).  In California, the North Coast Regional Water Quality Control Board (1994) has established water quality objectives for the upper Klamath River from the state line to Iron Gate Dam (see Table 2-14).  

          303(d)-Listed Segments of the Klamath River  

The mainstem Klamath River upstream from, within, and downstream from the planning area is included on lists of water quality limited water bodies (referred to as 303[d] lists) prepared in 1998 by the ODEQ and California North Coast Regional Water Quality Control Board.  In each listed segment, state standards are regularly exceeded for numerous water quality parameters (Table 2-15).  For some water quality parameters, data is not available to assess compliance with state standards.  

Water quality of the Klamath River within the planning area is affected by upstream point and non-point sources of pollutants:  

·         The source of the Klamath River , Upper Klamath Lake , is a hyper-eutrophic lake that supports an abundant algal population.  Lake water quality varies according to season and annual amount of runoff entering the lake.  Recent studies have pointed out that the nutrient-enriched condition of the lake, though natural, has likely been accentuated as a result of agricultural activities, livestock production, logging, urban development, and reclamation of wetlands for agriculture (Eilers et al. 2001, Snyder and Morace 1997).  Massive blooms of blue-green algae typically occur in the lake in the summer.  Daily cycles of respiration and decomposition result in  extremely high pH levels and wide fluctuations in levels of dissolved oxygen and carbonic acid.  

·         The Link River, which is that portion of the Klamath River flowing between the outlet of Upper Klamath Lake and the upstream end of Lake Ewauna, is included on the 1998 Oregon 303(d) list for temperature, pH, and chlorophyll-a.  

(pg 68)  

·         Drainage water from portions of the USBR Klamath Project is conveyed back into the Klamath River via the Klamath Straits Drain, which enters the river upstream from Keno, Oregon.  Water quality standards for dissolved oxygen, fecal coliform (from duck poop in the lower refuges ~ typist), temperature (from summer shallow water storage in the lower refuges and hot water seep springs ~ typist), pH (naturally occurring in the volcanic springs and seeps ~ typist), chlorophyll-a (from upper Klamath Lake ~ typist), and ammonia are not being met for this water body (ODEQ 1998). (Wonder why they keep using data from a 1998 report?  Could it be that subsequent scientific studies by ODEQ show a decrease in these pollutants? ~ the typist)  Effects to water quality in the river depend on the proportions of return flow to river water and vary by constituent (Mayer 2000).  

·         The Klamath River upstream from Keno Dam to the upper end of Lake Ewauna is included on the 1998 303(d) list due to high temperatures, low dissolved oxygen levels, high pH levels, and high chlorophyll-a abundance.  Additionally, measured concentrations of un-ionized ammonia in this reach are above criteria set by the ODEQ and the Environmental Protection Agency (ODEQ 1998).  

The Klamath River between Keno Dam and the California border (which includes Segments 1and 2) is included on the 1998 303(d) list for exceedance of Oregon temperature standards.  Though generally within the range of standards, other water quality parameters, such as dissolved oxygen and pH, may detrimentally affect beneficial uses and outstandingly remarkable values (including fisheries, recreation, and wildlife) in Segment 2 during certain flow conditions.  

The Klamath River between the state line and Iron Gate Dam is listed for high nutrient levels, organic enrichment, low dissolved oxygen, and high temperatures (California State Water Resources Conservation Board 1999).     

       Water Quality Trends (pg 69)  

Water quality within the planning area is monitored monthly by the ODEQ at several locations above Keno Dam and at the USGS J.C. Boyle gage. The City of Klamath Falls (1986) monitored water quality at several locations between Keno Dam and Copco Reservoir during 1984 and 1985, in relation to the proposed Salt Caves project (Table 2-16).  

Additionally, PacifiCorp monitored temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, total dissolved gas, and specific conductivity at several sites between the Link River Dam and the Iron Gate Powerhouse between 1994 and 1995 (PacifiCorp Environmental Services 1996).  

Within the planning area, dissolved oxygen (DO) levels increase between the upstream and downstream end of Segment 1, are reduced when flows are released at the powerhouse, and then increase between the powerhouse and the downstream end of Segment 3 (PacifiCorp 1996; PacifiCorp 1998).  

This longitudinal pattern reflects two primary influences on DO levels: (1) the balance between relatively high quality spring inflows and water from J.C. Boyle Reservoir, and (2) the effect of turbulent aeration caused by rapids. On a daily basis, it is likely that DO levels change as water temperatures respond to solar heat inputs and fluctuating flow levels downstream from the powerhouse.  

(pg 70) As discussed above, upstream water quality limitations may be responsible for a substantial portion of water quality problems within the planning area. Water quality downstream from pollution sources often improves due to dilution and/or mixing. Dissolved oxygen concentrations increase between Keno Bridge and the J. C. Boyle Powerhouse as result of aeration and dilution of organically enriched waters; pH levels decrease between those two sites, likely for similar reasons. Were it not for high quality groundwater entering the river in Segment 1, the effect of dilution within the planning area would be minimal, especially during the low flow season, when water quality problems are most critical.  

       Water Temperature Measurements (pg 70)  

Water temperatures in the planning area vary with season and by segment. Within both the river and tributary streams, temperatures are controlled by interactions between streamflow, channel geomorphology, and riparian vegetation. In the river, altered flows and, to a lesser degree, altered channel geomorphology and riparian vegetation have likely adversely affected water temperature and warming rates.  

(pg 71) Highest water temperatures occur June through August, in conjunction with high local air temperatures and low flows. Daily summer temperature fluctuations are lowest in Segment 1 and greatest in Segments 2 and 3. Because of the stable flows and springs, temperatures in Segment 1 remain relatively constant from day to day, and are typically around 70 degrees Fahrenheit in August and 48 to 53 degrees Fahrenheit in early spring. Where the flows from Segment 1 meet the releases from the Powerhouse, an abrupt mixing zone occurs.  

Mid-day peaking operations at the J.C. Boyle Powerhouse cause significant daily temperature fluctuations in Segments 2 and 3. Summer temperatures typically range from approximately 70 degrees Fahrenheit in early evening, coincident with the passage of large volumes of reservoir water, to approximately 58 degrees Fahrenheit in early morning hours, a result of nighttime cooling (City of Klamath Falls 1986). An additional cause of temperature fluctuations is the alternating source of water in this reach (i.e., spring-dominated vs. reservoir-dominated flows). Because the springs are much cooler than the reservoir water, higher water temperatures in Segments 2 and 3 correspond to higher releases from the powerhouse (Figure 2-3). At flows near 600 cfs, average water temperatures at the upstream end of Segment 2 are near 61 degrees Fahrenheit, while at flows near 1,800 cfs (one turbine) average water temperatures are near 68 degrees Fahrenheit.

When flows from the powerhouse are stable, water temperatures in Segments 2 and 3 are also relatively stable. During periods when peaking occurs, the daily minimum temperature is reduced and the daily range of temperatures is increased. The rate of temperature change associated with peaking operations is generally faster than the rate at which temperature changes due to changes in ambient air temperature (Figure 2-4).

       Effects of Reservoirs on Water Quality (pg 72)  

Instream reservoirs such as J.C. Boyle and Keno can improve or degrade water quality, depending on factors such as reservoir size and shape, reservoir operations, climatic conditions, time of year, and upstream water quality. According to one source (City of Klamath Falls 1986), the presence of instream reservoirs can reduce pH, bacterial counts, nutrients, sediments and turbidity, biological oxygen demand, and settling of algal loads. A more recent analysis of nutrient dynamics in the Klamath River suggests that the series of reservoirs do not function as nutrient sinks, perhaps as a result of nutrient cycling within the reservoirs (Campbell 1999).

       Effects of Land Management on Water Quality                       

Water quality within the planning area is affected primarily by hydroelectric facilities and operations and the character of water flowing into the planning area. Because the Klamath River drains such a large area, it is unlikely that land management activities such as timber harvest or grazing within the planning area have a substantial effect on overall water quality within the river. However, land management actions can affect habitat quality (and beneficial uses) at varying scales within the river, and can profoundly affect water quality within tributary streams. As the land within the river canyon is somewhat inaccessible and generally receives special management attention, the most significant land management effects on water quality and habitat quality in the river are related to the location and condition of the road network.  

     Effects of Water Quality on Beneficial Uses and ORVs (pg 73)

High water temperatures can affect beneficial uses indirectly, principally through the relationships between water temperatures, dissolved oxygen, and fish health. Low dissolved oxygen levels impair fish health. Dissolved oxygen levels decrease as temperature increases.  Increased temperature can also enhance algal productivity.  

Algae can impart a bad odor to water and a bad taste to game fish. As massive quantities of blue-green algae decay, the biological oxygen demand increases, and dissolved oxygen concentrations decrease to levels that are harmful to fish. This effect can be partially offset by aeration occurring in high gradient reaches of the river. Conditions that favor algal growth include shallow turbulent water, hard water, well-illuminated and warm water, and high phosphorous concentrations (FERC 1990). Such conditions are present in some reaches of the river within the planning area, especially in Segment 1.  

Dissol ved organic matter within the water contributes to the distinctive coffee color and foam that is often noted about the Klamath River .  

          Tributary Streams (pg 74)

Water quality data is generally lacking for tributary streams within the planning area. Water temperature data includes a continuous temperature data set measured at the mouth of Shovel Creek during 2000 and 2001and a series of “spot” measurements in various streams during the summer of 2001.  

Temperature and other water quality parameters, such as dissolved oxygen and pH, may detrimentally affect beneficial uses and outstandingly remarkable values (including fisheries, recreation, and wildlife) during certain flow conditions.

The temperature data set for Shovel Creek is reflective of the springs that comprise summer baseflow in this stream (Figure 2-5). A field survey of instantaneous temperatures conducted in August 2001 suggests that some warming occurs between the mouth of Bear Canyon and the mouth of Shovel Creek (over a distance of about 2.1 miles), but is limited by the contribution of Negro Creek flows, the northern aspect, and the closed canopy riparian forest.  The effect of the Shovel and Negro Creek diversions on water temperatures in those streams is uncertain, though other aspects of aquatic habitat may be adversely affected (Beyer 1984).

(pg 75) In May 2001, water temperature at three springs adjacent to the river downstream from the J.C. Boyle Powerhouse ranged from 50 to 60 degrees Fahrenheit. Temperatures at the mouths of Chert Creek (near RM 210) and Hayden Creek were 60 and 57 degrees Fahrenheit., respectively. Although both of these streams are spring-fed, warming occurs as they flow across broad meadows and south aspect slopes (BLM field notes).

Riparian roads adjacent to tributary streams may impair water quality, habitat quality, and fluvial processes. In the most severe cases, where roads are located extremely close to streams (such as along Chert Creek), streamflow may be captured by road surfaces. In other situations, riparian roads and stream crossings limit coarse woody debris (CWD) recruitment, stream shading, and fish/herptile passage, and may contribute runoff and fine sediment to stream channels.

The length of roads within riparian reserves of tributary streams (equivalent to the width of one site potential tree, or 140 feet), as well as their effect, varies between segments. Riparian roads adjacent to tributary streams in Segment 1 are short and do not appear to be causing resource damage. Riparian road length is greatest in Segment 2 (see Table 2-17). Of greatest concern in this segment are the roads that parallel portions of Chert and Way Creeks; the remainder cross, rather than parallel, streams. In Segment 3, relatively long road segments parallel Shovel and Hessig Creeks. While the Hessig Creek road likely affects runoff and channel processes in that ephemeral stream, the portions of the Shovel Creek Road (and associated spurs) that pass through forested areas probably have a detrimental effect on stream shading, wood recruitment, and sediment delivery to that stream.

      Major Tributaries of the Klamath River Planning Area (pg 80)

Tributaries within the canyon function as conduits for sediment and organic debris (BLM 1996). These materials originate on hillslopes and move through stream channels. These watershed products (sediment, course woody debris, and organics) are especially important for gravel bar and floodplain development, pool formation, and aquatic resource productivity in the Klamath River system. The mouths of tributary streams may also serve as important aquatic habitat refugial areas during flood events. Where tributary waters mix with the Klamath River , areas of relatively good water quality may persist through the year.  

Four important tributaries enter the river within the planning area: Rock, Hayden, Shovel, and Edge Creeks.

Rock Creek is a small tributary that meets the river at approximately RM 214. Rock Creek provides supplemental flows during spring and winter; its natural flow is supplemented by water pumped from Meiss Lake during wetter years. Increased suspended sediments have been noted in the river during periods of pumping (City of Klamath Falls 1986). The entrance to the creek from the river is steep and limits fish passage upstream of the mouth.

Portions of Rock Creek have been affected by road construction and maintenance. The channel has apparently been bulldozed and straightened to protect the bridge where Topsy Road crosses the stream. The stream in this area is no longer connected to its floodplain, channel form has been simplified, and as a result the extent of riparian communities has been reduced.

Hayden Creek enters the river approximately one river mile above the state line. Hayden Creek flows perennially, though during summer the flow near its mouth is restricted to subsurface pathways and perennial pools. As it enters the planning area, Hayden Creek flows in a step-pool channel (alternating between boulder cascades and plunge pools) through a narrow canyon that widens somewhat in two locations. As it nears the river, Hayden Creek enters a wide valley into which the stream has entrenched and formed a new floodplain. The channel assumes a pool-riffle morphology in this reach, with some side channel development.  Riparian vegetation is moderately abundant and consists of Oregon ash, willow species, ponderosa pine, and sedge species. The relic floodplain is now a dry meadow, the low parts of which may be seasonally inundated. Some gully development is apparent in portions of the relic floodplain.

Downstream from Hoover Ranch, the stream briefly flows through a steep canyon before opening up again at its mouth. An irrigation canal (from the Klamath River ) diverts flow at the mouth of Hayden Creek and prevents full connectivity of the stream to the river. A small irrigation diversion had been developed on Hayden Creek approximately 0.25-mile upstream from the mouth, likely to irrigate the lower field of Hoover Ranch. The irrigation diversion point has subsequently blown out. Two wet meadows are adjacent to the mouth of Hayden Creek, one to the east and one to the northwest

(pg 81) Shovel Creek is the most significant tributary within the planning area. It enters the river upstream from RM 206. A major tributary to this stream is Negro Creek, which joins Shovel Creek less than a mile from the river. Both of these are small streams, averaging not more than 15 feet wide. As they enter the planning area, these streams flow through moderately steep and confined valleys. Shovel Creek enters a wider valley approximately 1.6 miles upstream from the river, while Negro Creek remains moderately confined for all but the lower 0.3 miles of its length.

The unconfined portions of both streams are responsive to changes in watershed and riparian conditions, and thus show some evidence of past and recent land management. Stream channels have incised by perhaps one to three feet, partly as a result of increased runoff and partly as a result of reduced instream CWD. The active channels have widened and contain few deep pools. Loss of gravel storage areas and increased fine sediment contributions could also be impairing habitat quality (Beyer 1984). Currently, the streams are cobble-dominated systems that have fairly low sinuosity and sparse functional CWD. A few pockets of gravel were noted during stream surveys in the river below the mouth of Shovel Creek. Shovel Creek is a primary a source of gravel for the mainstem river in the lower portion of Segment 3.

In the vicinity of the bridge near its mouth, Shovel Creek has been channelized in the past to prevent bridge failure during peak flows. Coarse sediment and CWD accumulate upstream from the bridge during these events and restrict the conveyance of floods. The bridge and associated structures have been threatened during such events at least three times in the past 40 years (Miller 2002, personal communication). These occurrences suggest that the volume of sediment moving through the stream is not in balance with the ability of the stream to transport it, the size of the bridge is not adequate, or both.  

Riparian communities change along the length of Shovel Creek, with the amount of stream cover increasing with distance from the mouth (Beyer 1984). Towards the mouth, grass is the dominant vegetation, with a narrow fringe of hardwoods and blackberry along the stream.  Upstream, a closed canopy forest is present along the stream, the composition of which shifts from hardwood dominated to conifer dominated as the stream gains elevation. Portions of the riparian area have been logged in the past, though there are no extensive anthropogenic openings in the forest. Similar patterns exist in Negro Creek, though portions of its drainage have been harvested recently.

                                  
The diversion of Shovel and Negro Creek waters for irrigation (and the maintenance of instream irrigation diversions) has had adverse affects on fish habitat (Beyer 1984). The irrigation diversions lower stream flow from late spring through early autumn.

Edge Creek enters the river less than a mile downstream from Shovel Creek. Only a very short length of Edge Creek is within the planning area. This consists primarily of a steep drainage flowing down from the canyon rim, though the stream gradient decreases substantially near its mouth. Edge Creek flows under an irrigation ditch near its mouth.  During high flow periods, runoff from Edge Creek is captured by the irrigation ditch (Miller, personal communication, 2002).

Other minor tributaries within the planning area include Chert, Way, and Frain Creeks. These streams enter the river at steep inclinations. Each of these streams is spring-fed and provides habitat for aquatic invertebrates and herptiles. Instream and riparian conditions within and along these streams vary, although an array of potential problems have been identified. These include poorly functioning stream crossings, riparian roads, grazing impacts, and conversion of riparian vegetation to upland types.

          Aquatic Species/Habitat (pg 85)

The dams on the Klamath River have affected fish species distribution throughout the Klamath Basin. Historically, theKlamath River was a passageway for anadromous fish, salmon, steelhead, and Pacific lamprey as they migrated to various tributaries of the Klamath River and Upper Klamath Lake (ODFW 1997). These fish runs were halted as early as 1910 by the construction of Copco I Dam, completed in 1917, which permanently blocked fish passage (City of Klamath Falls 1986). Five more dams were built on the upper Klamath River-Copco II and lron Gate are located in California , and Link River, Keno, and J.C. Boyle Dams are located in Oregon (PacifiCorp 2000). J.C. Boyle, Keno, and Link River Dams have fish ladders intended for trout migration. Only J.C. Boyle Dam has a screening facility to prevent entrainment of fish into the power diversion canal.

Connectivity of the planning area segments to the upper and lower portions of the Klamath River has been impaired by alterations in water quality and development of the river for commercial purposes including dams, diversions, and dikes.

The major human impact to aquatic habitat over the last 150 years has been the fragmentation and loss of components of the marsh, lake, and stream system in Klamath Basin (ODFW 1995). The basin floor was developed for agriculture, which included extensive diking, channeling, draining, and loss of marshlands. Diversions were constructed on many streams and rivers in the Klamath system, causing dewatering and physical blockages for both upstream and downstream migrating trout. Cattle grazing also contributed to channel degradation in some locations.

Alteration in lake alkalinity and water quality limited outflow may have increased contributions as a result of the loss of adjacent marshlands in the upper basin. Lake , marsh, and riparian rearing habitat and functioning migration corridors have been lost as a result.  Much of the impacts have occurred on private lands and are affecting the aquatic condition of the planning area.

The wild and scenic river segment of the upper Klamath River is inhabited by a diverse assemblage of fish species; at least 10 known native species occur (Table 2-21). Three species of note occur in the wild and scenic river segment (redband trout, Lost River sucker, and shortnose sucker) and shall be addressed independently. The other native species found in the river include Klamath smallscale sucker, blue and tui chub, Klamath speckled dace, sculpin species, and lamprey species (City of Klamath Falls 1986). The Klamath largescale sucker, a federal species of concern, has been found in J.C. Boyle Reservoir and potentially occurs in the planning area (USDI-BLM 1990).

Lost River (Deltistes luxatus) and shortnose (Chasmistes brevirostris) sucker are large, long-lived and omnivorous lake-dwelling species that generally spawn in rivers, streams, or springs (Beuttner and Scoppettone 1990). These two species likely occur in the wild and scenic river segment of the upper Klamath River . Although utilization has not been documented, both species have been documented in upstream and downstream reservoirs (City of Klamath Falls 1987; Beuttner and Scoppettone 1991). Both species were federally listed as endangered in 1988, and state listed as endangered 1991 (ODFW 1995). The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) completed a federal recovery plan in 1993. The planning area was listed as proposed critical habitat (unit 3) for both Lost River and shortnose suckers in 1994 (Federal Register Vol. 59, No. 230).  

Klamath redband trout are currently the primary game fish inhabiting the river. The upper Klamath River from Keno Dam to slackwater of Copco I Reservoir has been identified as (pg 86) wild trout managed fisheries (ODFW 1997; CDFG 2000). The Klamath River from the Keno Dam downstream to the state line was one of the first three rivers designated in 1978 by the ODFW as a wild trout stream. From the state line to Copco Reservoir, the Klamath River has been managed by the California Department of Fish and Game as a wild trout area since 1974 (CDFG 2000).

No nonnative hatchery trout have been stocked in the Oregon reach of the Klamath River since 1978, or in the California reach since 1974. The California Department of Fish and Game and a private organization cooperated to raise and plant native stocks of trout into Shovel Creek between 1985-1990.

The concern for and importance of this wild rainbow trout fishery has been acknowledged not only by state designation, but by public and private concerns and also by state and federal government agencies as evidenced by the following:  

• The National Park Service, in its 1982 nationwide rivers inventory, recognized the “excellent trout fishery” of the Klamath River .

• The Northwest Power Planning Council designated the upper Klamath River as a protected area in 1988, to protect the resident rainbow trout population.

• The 1986 Pacific Northwest rivers study for Oregon gave their highest resource value rating to the Klamath River based on the wild trout population.

• The ODFW chose the wild rainbow populations of the Klamath Basin, specifically those of the Klamath River, as the first of many in the state to be studied, to better understand how stocks of wild trout have adapted to their particular environments.

The Klamath system produces an immense quantity of aquatic invertebrates such as caddisflies, mayflies, midges, and stoneflies, which provide a primary food source for trout (USDI-BLM 1990). Crayfish are considered abundant and would be an important part of the trout’s diet.  

          Redband of the Klamath River (pg 87)  

The Oregon Basin redband trout occupies remnant streams in seven Pleistocene lakebeds in Oregon (ODFW 1995). Populations in each of these basins are completely isolated by natural geological features, except for those in the Klamath Basin. After Lake Modoc cut an outlet to the Pacific Ocean via the Klamath River, the lake became smaller as the outlet trenched down (Behnke 1992). After the connection to the ocean was made with the Klamath River , steelhead were known to migrate from the ocean to the Klamath Lake area. The novel traits in the Upper Klamath Basin group may have resulted from the interbreeding of the newly invading O. mykiss with the original resident fish of the basin (ODFW 1995; Behnke 1992).

Thousands of years of adapting to a drying environment have enabled populations of Klamath Basin redband trout to feed at higher temperatures than most other western trout, which typically are affected by increases in temperature (Behnke 1992). Native stocks of redband in the Klamath Watershed have also evolved resistance to an endemic bacterial disease, (Ceratomyxa shasta), which is highly lethal to nonnative trout (ODFW 1997).

Klamath River redband confront many environmental constraints, including low summer base flows and concurrent decreasing water quality, lack of spawning gravel, cyclic water fluctuations from power generation, and potential competition from nonnative warm water fish (City of Klamath Falls 1986). Despite these problems, Klamath River redband in the planning area have been able to sustain a sport fishery (ODFW 1997).

The loss of access between lakes, marshes, and streams has interfered with the migratory life histories of Klamath Basin redband trout (ODFW 1995). Population productivity has been compromised because of the loss of the important rearing areas. Gene flow among the Klamath Basin populations has ceased or is reduced and many of its populations are seriously fragmented. Some populations have likely been completely lost.  

The trout population that persists in the wild and scenic river segment of the upper Klamath River could be described as locally productive; however, due to passage limitation above and below the wild and scenic river segment, this population is very restricted in distribution.  Potentially, the life history options that carried this population through natural drought cycles, or provided for recolonization in the event of die off, are no longer available.

Close genetic similarity of rainbow trout exists between multiple stream populations in areas above Upper Klamath Lake including Spring Creek and Trout Creek, and areas below including Spencer Creek and Bogus Creek (Buchanan et. al. 1994). This genetic similarity suggests that the upper Klamath River trout, including fish within the wild and scenic river segment, are closely related. In addition, ODFW noted genetic uniqueness of the populations of trout in the basin as evidence of a history of isolation from other evolutionary lines of trout (Buchanan et al. 1994).

(pg 88) Based on the genetic analysis of upper Klamath native trout indicating uniqueness and isolation from other trout populations, support exists for the classification as a separate subspecies (Klamath redband trout) scientific name Onchorhynchus mykiss newberri of the trout of the upper basin including the affected wild and scenic river segment of the upper Klamath River. This classification nomenclature was originally derived from early collection of specimens from the 1850s (Behnke 1992). While this classification has not been formally accepted, protection of genetically distinct stocks is an important management goal (USDIBLM 1995; ODFW 1997). The redband, including those within the wild and scenic river segment, are included in ODFW Klamath Lake gene conservation group of the Oregon Basin redband trout complex that is listed as a State sensitive species (ODFW 1997).

The “Upper Klamath River Wild Trout Management Plan 2000-2004” (CDFG 2000) makes no distinction between these Klamath River trout stocks and other rainbow trout. The purity of the wild and scenic river segment of the upper Klamath River strain comes under question as a result of Iron Gate hatchery supplementation from 1970-1981 into Copco Reservoir.

Iron Gate Hatchery steelhead stocks were founded on native fish, but some eggs were imported from Trinity River hatchery and Cowlitz River Hatchery in Washington (Klamath River Basin Fisheries Task Force 1991). The introduced nonnative strains of rainbow trout into the Klamath Basin probably have not been able to reproduce due to their susceptibility to the endemic disease, C. Shasta .It is hoped that the genetics of the native trout in the affected reach would endure only minimal negative effects. (ODFW 1997).

Informally, California Department of Fish and Game biologists support ODFW classification of the Klamath redband trout as a separate subspecies of rainbow trout (Rode 2002, personal communication).

In high-gradient systems trout production can be greatly affected by limited habitat features rather than food supply (Behnke 1992). Trout require four kinds of habitat during the various stages of their life history: spawning habitat, nursery or rearing habitat, adult habitat, and overwintering habitat. Deficiencies in any one of the four will limit the potential production.

Spawning Habitats/Occurrence: All western trout spawn during the spring, stimulated by the rising water temperatures (Behnke 1992). However, specific spawning time varies greatly depending on temperature and flow regimes. Klamath River redband trout spawn from late February through May (City of Klamath Falls 1986).

Although some spawning habitat is found in the bypass reach, the wild and scenic river segment of the upper Klamath River and the California reach have little or no spawning habitat for trout (ODFW 1997; City of Klamath Falls 1986).

Recruitment of spawning gravel to the wild and scenic river segment, as well as the Bypass and California reaches, is very limited, due to the presence of the J.C. Boyle Dam and the small number of tributary streams (City of Klamath Falls 1986).

Of the spawning habitat that is present in the wild and scenic river segment of the upper Klamath River , much would be exposed during low flows, as a result of peaking operations, making these areas unsuitable for incubation of trout embryos during most years. The abnormal flow fluctuations, associated with peaking operation below the powerhouse, may also interfere with normal spawning behavior (Marcus et al. 1990).

Adult trout from the analysis area are assumed to migrate to either Spencer Creek or Shovel Creek to spawn due to the general lack of spawning habitat in the Klamath River . Spencer Creek, the primary spawning tributary in the Keno reach of the river, empties into J.C. Boyle Reservoir. The spawning population in Spencer Creek has been monitored in Spencer Creek and robust spawning recruitment is evident (ODFW 1995).

(pg 89) However, most of the spawners in Spencer Creek appear to come from the Keno reach above J.C. Boyle Dam.

The number of fish below J.C. Boyle Dam attempting to migrate to Spencer Creek apparently has decreased by about 99 percent since the construction of the J.C. Boyle facility (Hemmingsen et al. 1992). Monitoring migration over J.C. Boyle Dam in 1959 indicated 5,529 adult redband passing the facility, while counts in 1991 (a drought year) were only 70.  River flow in the mainstem reach used by this population is highly regulated (ODFW 1995) and may be affecting fishery ecology (Marcus et al. 1990). Inadequate upstream fish passage facilities at J.C. Boyle Dam are also a possible cause of this decline.

Shovel Creek, located three miles downstream from the state line, is the primary tributary to the Klamath River reach below the wild and scenic river segment of the upper Klamath River.  The lower 2.77 miles of this tributary are an important spawning area for the Klamath River wild redband trout (CDFG 2000). However, insufficient spawning gravel was found to be a limiting factor in Shovel Creek. Loss of gravel storage areas, increased fine sediment contributions, and diversions for irrigation delivery may also be impairing spawning habitat quality. Adults were documented to be moving upstream into Shovel Creek to spawn from March-June (Beyer 1984). Most downstream movement of spawned out adults (kelts) occurred from mid-May until June.

Rearing Habitats/Occurrence: Important rearing habitat for trout would include habitat with protective cover and low velocity water (Behnke 1992). Such habitats occur along the margins of streams and in spring seeps, side channels, and small tributaries. The bypass reach of the river is potentially an important rearing area for young trout during their first year of life (City of Klamath Falls 1986). After the high winter/spring flows drop off, the flow is relatively stable in bypass reach from summer through winter and the water temperatures of the lower part of the reach is improved by spring inflow (USDI-BLM 1990).

Little information exists on the condition of rearing habitat in upper wild and scenic river segment of the upper Klamath River, however the milder gradient of the upper reach should provide more rearing habitat than the lower segment. In the lower wild and scenic river segment of the upper Klamath River very few pools or backwater habitats suitable for rearing of juvenile fishes were found under summer low flow conditions even less would be available at higher flows due to increased water velocities in the narrow, constricted river valley (City of Klamath Falls 1986).

Some rearing habitat for trout fry and juveniles is available in the California section of the Klamath River . Shovel creek is considered an important rearing tributary to the Klamath River in California (CDFG 2000). Shovel Creek rearing capacity could be limited as a result of water withdrawal (Beyer 1984). However, the effect of diversions on age-0 fish rearing habitat is uncertain.

In the wild and scenic river segment of the upper Klamath River and California reach, large expanses of riverbed are exposed and inundated on a daily basis throughout varying lengths of the year (particularly during the summer) due to the water level fluctuations associated with hydropower generation. The dewatering of river habitat on a daily basis contributes to reductions in the availability of rearing habitat (Marcus et. al. 1990). In addition, stranding of rearing fish may also occur in the wild and scenic river segment of the upper Klamath River as a result swift exposure of riverbed. Stranding has been documented in the California reach, below wild and scenic river segment (City of Klamath Falls 1987). The target species for this stranding study was larval suckers, however the exact species classification of stranded animals was not noted as all fish were classified as larvae.

Fry and juvenile redband trout inhabit the wild and scenic river segment of the upper Klamath River . Monitoring by PacifiCorp, snorkeling of the J.C. Boyle reach in 1996, indicated the presence of young of the year (less than three inches) redband trout (ODFW 1997). Juvenile (pg 90) trout appear to rear as a relatively larger percentage of the population in the Bypass reach versus the portions of the wild and scenic river segment of the upper Klamath River and California reach (City of Klamath Falls 1986). Trout fry and juveniles were observed in the Klamath River below Shovel Creek during electro-fishing surveys in September 1984. In Shovel Creek fry emergence occurred in June. Fish averaged 29 mm long and grew about 15.7 mm every month until November (Beyer 1984). Most trout emigrated from Shovel Creek to the Klamath River as young of the year (CDFG 2000).

Fry and juvenile trout appear to exhibit a late summer to early fall downstream movement at the J.C. Boyle Dam (City of Klamath Falls 1986). Observed downstream movement of fry to the J.C. Boyle Reservoir of the Klamath River from Spencer Creek occurred during October and November (Hemmingsen et al. 1992).

Some fry movement occurred as early as May and June. Research monitoring downstream fish movement below J.C. Boyle Dam to measure possible recruitment from Spencer Creek concluded that the low numbers of juvenile redband collected suggests inadequate recruitment was occurring to maintain the population in the river between the J.C. Boyle Dam and the California state line (Hemmingsen et al. 1992).

Other sources of recruitment for trout may contribute to the present fishery, including the upper basin sources, mainstem sources, and tributaries sources such as Shovel Creek. In Shovel Creek, movement of fry (0+) occurred in late summer with the peak in late August, and juveniles (1+) migrated out of Shovel Creek to the river from April to June (Beyer 1984).

Adult Habitats/Occurrence: At adulthood, stream species generally live at a depth of 0.3 meters or greater, in areas where slow waters for resting are juxtaposed with fast waters that carry food, and where protective cover is provided by boulders, logs, overhanging vegetation, or undercut banks (Behnke 1992).

Cover for adult habitat in the Klamath River is primarily derived from instream sources such as boulders and water depths (City of Klamath Falls 1986). The riparian vegetation contribution to cover varies in along the length of the river. Large expanses of riverbed in the wild and scenic river segment of the upper Klamath River are exposed and inundated on a daily basis throughout varying lengths of the year (particularly during the summer) due to the water level fluctuations associated with hydropower generation.

ODFW’s monitoring of downstream fish movement below J.C. Boyle Dam indicated that Spencer Creek did not have adequate recruitment of juvenile redband to maintain the adult population in the river between the J.C. Boyle Dam and the California state line (Hemmingsen et al. 1992). Regardless, the existing trout population appears to support a sustainable fishery (ODFW 1997). Estimates of adult trout (197 mm or larger) populations between J.C. Boyle Powerhouse and the Frain Ranch (upper reach), and Frain Ranch to Salt Caves (lower reach) were conducted in August 1984 (City of Klamath Falls 1986).  Population estimates ranged from 890 fish/mile in the upper reach (95 percent confidence interval of 763-1,069), to 1,911 fish/mile in the lower reach (95 percent confidence interval of 475-7,936). The highest number of adult trout would probably have occurred late in January or early February.

Shovel Creek appears to support a healthy population of spawning rainbow trout (CDFG 2000). The age of the Shovel Creek fish at maturity was similar to rainbow trout in other studies (Beyer 1984). Most trout mature in their second or third year. Minimum size at maturity 140 mm (males) to 163 mm (females) was smaller when compared to other studies but within the range of normal variation. The back calculated mean fork-length for each age of fish taken in Shovel Creek was; 102 mm age 1, 191 mm age 2, 293 mm age 3, and 357 mm at age 4.

(pg 91)Redband management: The planning area portion of the Klamath River in Oregon is managed as a catch-and-release fishery from June to September, and is open to a limited catch the remainder of the year (ODFW 2002). The palatability of the trout meat decreases during the summer/fall seasons, potentially as a result of the poor water quality conditions (ODFW 1997). ODFW noted that in the lower river reach downstream of the J.C. Boyle Powerhouse the hydroelectric peaking operation seriously hampered angler use and catch rates. Low angler use was noted during power peaking periods due to added difficulty and poor success during those conditions.

In the California reach of the planning area, Shovel Creek is closed to fishing year-round to protect important wild trout spawning areas, and a portion of the Klamath River , 250 feet upstream and downstream from the mouth of Shovel Creek, is closed from November through June (CDFG 2000). Otherwise the California segment is open to a limited catch from April to November. When compared to other wild trout rivers monitored by California Department of Fish and Game, the Upper Klamath River Wild Trout Area had the highest overall catch rate (CDFG 2000).

          Lost River and Shortnose Suckers (pg 91)

“The Lost River sucker, or “mullet,” once an important food staple for local Native Americans, was at one time abundant in Klamath Basin lakes and streams, migrating by the thousands to spawn in tributaries of Upper Klamath Lake. Lost River and shortnose suckers typically inhabit lakes and migrate into tributaries to spawn. Adult suckers are long-lived with late sexual maturity (ages 5-7). There is extremely poor recruitment to adult size and age classes in the Klamath Basin . Recruitment failure is attributed to poor survival of larval and juvenile life history stages due to water quality changes, habitat availability, and exotic predation (ODFW 1995; Desjardins and Markle 2000).

Spawning Habitat/Occurrence:  For stream spawning populations, suckers begin their spawning migration in late February, March, or early April, depending on peak flows, with spawning activity continuing well into May (USDI-USFWS 1993). Suckers spawn in a range of water temperatures (9-17 degrees Celsius), water depths (1-170 centimeters), and water velocities (42-132 centimeters/second) (Beuttner and Scoppettone 1990). Spawning occurs near the bottom, and when gravel is available eggs are dispersed within the top several centimeters. Spawning over cobbles and armored substrate, eggs fall between the crevices or are swept downstream. Spawning preference appears to be more related to flow than to substrate type. However, reproductive success may not be tightly linked to spawning habitat preference.

Spawning runs of listed sucker species has been documented in the California reach above Copco Reservoir (Beuttner and Scoppettone 1991.

Tagged suckers have been documented appearing to prepare for spawning near the slackwater of Copco Reservoir (City of Klamath Falls 1987). Suckers have not been observed spawning in Shovel Creek. Age class analysis has indicated that successful recruitment is not occurring among the two sucker species in these segments of the river (Beuttner and Scoppettone 1991).  The scouring and dewatering associate with the hydroelectric operations were thought to reduce survival of eggs and larvae, and predation may also be impairing recruitment.

Rearing Fry/Juvenile Habitat/Occurrence:   Larval suckers usually spend relatively little time in tributary streams but migrate back to the reservoir shortly after swim-up (the emergence of larvae from spawn substrate, which typically occurs soon after hatching in suckers) (USDI-USFWS 1993). Larval suckers appear to exhibit a diel migratory behavior and typically migrate during the evening hours. Most larvae would likely migrate to the reservoir between May and June. Larvae prefer slow water areas surrounded by rooted aquatic vegetation, and the larvae appear to avoid areas devoid of vegetation. Gently sloping, unvegetated shorelines are common today lining the lakes and larger streams of the Klamath.

(pg 92) This type of habitat was probably nonexistent historically and created as a result of dams.  This type of habitat does not provide nursery habitats of the same quality as a marsh/mature riparian edge habitat.

Little is known of juvenile sucker habitat in the wild and scenic river segment of the upper Klamath River, the adjacent river reaches, and the slackwater of Copco Reservoir. However, juvenile habitat could be affected by water level fluctuation from power peaking operations, which can disturb littoral zone cover and substrate, and can also affect nutrient concentrations, light, temperature, phytoplankton and zooplankton abundance, and macroinvertebrates (Desjardins and Markle 1999).

Loss or alteration of any of these components could be harmful to sucker population stability.  Introduction of exotic fish species and hybridization have also been suggested as mechanisms for decline. Recent genetic work suggests hybridization does not occur frequently. Surveys for larval suckers in the California   reach indicated that the majority (98 percent) of larvae occurred near the lower most portion of the reach (City of Klamath Falls 1987). Larval presence declined substantially progressing upstream.

Adult Habitat/Occurrence Copco Reservoir:  Lost River and shortnose sucker extended their range into the upper Klamath River system following the creation of lacustrine habitat by construction of Copco reservoir (City of Klamath Falls 1987). Adult suckers spend relatively little time in the riverine spawning reaches, migrating back to the reservoirs after spawning (USDI-USFWS 1993).

The Klamath River reservoirs may be acting as catch basins for expatriated suckers from Upper Klamath Lake (Desjardins and Markle 2000). Juveniles and subadult survive in J.C. Boyle Reservoir, while older individuals move downstream through the Bypass reach, the wild and scenic river segment of the upper Klamath River , and the California reach to Copco and Iron Gate Reservoirs.

Introduced Species (pg 92)

At least fourteen exotic species occur in the river and reservoirs (Table 2-21). Yellow perch, fathead minnows, Sacramento perch, and golden shiner typically favor slower water habitats including slackwater shoals close to Copco Reservoir, and generally are not found in swift flowing portions of the river (USDI-BLM 1990). Although not documented by fisheries specialists, there have been at least two reports of white sturgeon in the planning area. White sturgeon was planted in Upper Klamath Lake in 1956 (ODFW 1997). Brown trout, planted in Copco Reservoir, inhabit and migrate through the California reach to spawn in Shovel Creek (CDFG 2000). Steelhead, planted into Copco Reservoir 1971-1981 (excepting 1975, 1977, and 1978) has been reported from the California portion of the Klamath in the past.

          Limitation to Aquatic Species in the Wild and Scenic River

Habitat: Abnormal fluctuation in daily and seasonal flow patterns created below the hydroelectric power operations can lead to low flow dewatering of spawning beds, and both low flow and high flow induced spawning interference, incubation mortality, and rearing mortality of resident fish (Marcus et al. 1990).

Downstream dewatering and desiccation of spawning habitat is a documented occurrence in the wild and scenic river segment of the upper Klamath River (City of Klamath Falls 1986).  Downstream dewatering and desiccation are undoubtedly the worst of the possible adverse impacts on the stream (Marcus et al. 1990). In addition, in regulated streams where natural peak flushing flows are greatly reduced, fine sediment can accumulate in the deeper layers, clogging the free flow of water (Marcus et al 1990).

(pg 93) The quality of the spawning habitat present in the wild and scenic river segment of the upper Klamath River was impaired, as result of being heavily embedded and interspersed with large cobble (City of Klamath Falls 1986). Embedded sediments can adversely affect the intragravel habitat important to the survival of benthic insects, incubating eggs, and rearing larvae (Marcus et al. 1990).

The wild and scenic river segment of the upper Klamath River is probably poor rearing habitat. This can be attributed to high gradient and a wide range of flow velocities as a result of peaking operations by the J.C. Boyle Powerhouse. Downstream dewatering of habitat resulting from hydroelectric impoundments would eliminate access to cover habitat and potentially degrade the quality of the existing habitat (Marcus et al. 1990).

Alteration of instream flows from power operation and changes in sediment regimes due to reservoirs can result in decreased bank stability and loss of riparian vegetation (Marcus et al. 1990), which would decrease the cover habitat important to rearing fish (Behnke 1992).

Rearing habitat in the California reaches would be affected similarly by peaking operations.  The extent and cumulative impacts of stranding has not been studied in the wild and scenic river segment of the upper Klamath River (CDFG 2000), but the occurrence of larval stranding has been documented (City of Klamath Falls 1987). In the wild and scenic river segment of the upper Klamath River and California reach, large expanses of riverbed are exposed and inundated on a daily basis throughout varying lengths of the year (particularly during the summer) due to the water level fluctuations associated with hydropower generation (City of Klamath Falls 1986).

The predominate habitat types, from the lower segment of the upper reach within the wild and scenic river segment of the upper Klamath River, are shallow rapids, riffles, and runs. Channels with an abundance of shallow habitat are more likely to have larger areas exposed during down-ramping where fish could become separated from the main river flow due to declines in stage ( Stillwater 1999). The large flow fluctuations associated with the J.C. Boyle Powerhouse can cause high mortality to young fish through stranding (City of Klamath Falls 1990).

Daily temperature fluctuations of up to 12 degrees Celsius occur in this full flow reach of the river during the middle of the summer (City of Klamath Falls 1986). The effects of these large diurnal temperature fluctuations on the existing cold water fish populations has not been studied specifically for the wild and scenic river segment of the upper Klamath River.

It can be assumed that water temperature fluctuation impacts to fisheries may include elevation of temperatures beyond the range preferred for rearing, inhibition of upstream migration of adults, increased susceptibility to disease, reduced metabolic efficiency, and shifts in competitive advantage (Hicks et al. 1991).

Impacts to other aquatic resources may also be occurring as a result of hydroelectric power operations, including water level fluctuation associated with J.C. Boyle Powerhouse, and poor passage. The distribution of benthic organisms appears to be limited by power peaking operations (City of Klamath Falls 1986). The production of benthic invertebrates’ appears to be limited to locations in the riverbed that remained wet during the low flow period of the daily flow cycle.

The impact of J.C. Boyle Dam impairing downstream movement of fish to the wild and scenic river segment of the upper Klamath River has not been studied. Studies of trout food habits in the Bypass reach and wild and scenic river segment of the upper Klamath River did not note the occurrence of prey fish species in stomach contents analysis (City of Klamath Falls 1990).

Downstream passage concerns have been noted, including poor passage hydraulics and predation exposure in the forebay of J.C. Boyle Reservoir (FishPro 2000), which may limit the downstream movement of prey species.

(pg 94) Redband Trout: ODFW fisheries biologists have noted that redband in the wild and scenic river segment of the upper Klamath River and Bypass reach appear to be smaller in size on average than fish observed in the Keno reach of the river above J.C. Boyle Reservoir (Smith 2000, personal communication). The physical structures of Keno Dam are more conducive to fish passage than J.C. Boyle (FishPro 2000). Lake elevation and flow rates are regulated at Keno Dam to maintain near constant conditions in Lake Ewauna (FishPro 2000) and instream flows for the reach generally are governed by Bureau of Reclamation directives in meeting their instream flow requirements downstream from Iron Gate Dam (PacifiCorp 2000). This results in fairly unimpaired flows in the Keno reach.

Adult habitat limits the population biomass of resident trout in most streams (Behnke 1992).  Spawning and rearing habitat are adequate, and the food supply would support a greater biomass of trout if more adult habitat were present. Excessive recruitment into the population, where young and adult fish are competing for a common food supply, results in short-lived slow-growing individuals and a population whose biomass is tied up in small, young fish.

Based on the population estimates and length frequency distribution (City of Klamath Falls 1986) and the existing conditions of poor upstream passage at J. C. Boyle Dam (Hemmingsen et al. 1992) and power operations which provides suitable habitat to only individuals which can escape the daily dewatering, the trout population could be exceeding carrying capacity and the additive recruitment of trout to these segments could then affect the trout size/age structure.

Genetics may be playing a part in the differences in size and age between the Keno stretch and the wild and scenic river segment of the upper Klamath River reach. The populations of Upper Klamath   Basin trout exhibit older ages at maturity and large maximum size (Behnke 1992). Fish passage facilities at J.C. Boyle Dam have been described as inadequate (FishPro 2000; Hemmingsen et al. 1992). Recruitment to the wild and scenic river segment of the upper Klamath River may be limited from these upper populations. 

Movement between Keno and the upper basin may not be similarly affected. Selection of smaller, earlier maturing fish may be occurring in the wild and scenic river segment of the upper Klamath River .

Food supply may also be impairing size and age structures. Trout restricted to small food items form populations characterized by small maximum individual sizes and young maximum ages (Behnke 1992). Only when trout have adequate access to larger prey, such as crayfish and fish, can they avoid feeding competition with smaller trout and sustain growth.

Truncated population structures, particularly in the Bypass reach where older age classes were missing, has been documented (City of Klamath Falls 1990).

Downstream passage concerns have been noted, including poor passage hydraulics and predation exposure in the forebay of J.C. Boyle Reservoir (FishPro 2000), which may limit the downstream movement of larger prey species. Lack of this larger fish prey base could be limiting the size classes present in the wild and scenic river segment of the upper Klamath River , which would not occur in Keno Reservoir (which has better passage).

          Historic Anadromous Species

The steelhead life history morphology was historically present in this group, but is now considered extinct (ODFW 1995). This life history probably was introduced into the Upper Klamath Basin after the Pleistocene Lake Modoc opened to the Pacific Ocean (Behnke 1992).

The novel traits in the Upper Klamath Basin group may have resulted from the interbreeding of the new invading O. mykiss with the original resident fish of the basin (ODFW 1995; Behnke 1992). Steelhead were documented as far up as the Link River (ODFW 1997).

Fall chinook and spring chinook salmon potentially spawned within the Sprague River   (Klamath River Basin Fisheries Task Force 1992). Runs were seen as far up the Sprague River as Beatty, Oregon, and spawning was reported in the North and South Forks of the Sprague. Historically, entry timing for spring chinook appeared to occur in March to upper Klamath River area. Fall chinook entry to the Sprague River was noted in September and October.

The Coho adapted to the Upper Klamath Basin had been lost sometime prior to the earliest documented fisheries assessment and collections, and prior to fish collections between 1914-1918 at Klamathon Racks (Klamath River Basin Fisheries Task Force 1992).

Currently the Southern Oregon Northern California Coastal Coho salmon ESU, in which the Klamath River populations downstream of Iron Gate Dam are included, was listed as threatened under the Endangered Species Act in 1997 (62 FR 24588). An ESU or Evolutionarily Sensitive Unit, is a designation that defines a distinctive group of Pacific salmon, steelhead, or sea-run cut-throat trout (NOAA and National Marine Fisheries Service 2000).

Designated critical habitat for Southern Oregon Northern California Coastal Coho salmon occurs downstream of Iron Gate Dam (May 5, 1999; 64 FR 24049).

Reintroduction of anadromous fisheries to the Upper Klamath Basin has been addressed more than once (Fortune et al. 1966; Klamath River Basin Fisheries Task Force 1992). Conditions of the Upper Basin and anticipated relative costs versus relative benefits negated implementation of reintroduction of anadromous fisheries at the time based on these reviews.

The hydroelectric project on the upper Klamath River (FERC Project No. 2082), including five of the six mainstem dams currently blocking or impairing fish passage, will be assessed for reintroduction of anadromous species through the hydroelectric facilities as part of the relicensing process.

          Management of the Fishery Resources (pg95)

The BLM has committed to fisheries management goals from the 1994 “Northwest Forest Plan” and included Aquatic Conservation Strategy objectives, “Bring Back The Natives,” and “Fish and Wildlife 2000.” These plans/initiatives are guidance to the BLM for fisheries habitat management.

“Bring Back The Natives” is a national effort by the BLM, the USFS, and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration-Native Marine Fisheries Service to restore the health of entire riverine systems and their native species (NFWF et al. 1992).

Public land management initiatives, such as “Fish and Wildlife 2000,” target key habitats and animal and plant species as well as water quality. “Fish and Wildlife 2000” is a plan to improve management of fish, wildlife, and their habitats on BLM-administered lands.

It is the objective of the BLM to manage and maintain habitat in the planning area and, where feasible, restore those habitats that are now in degraded condition. The 1994 “Northwest Forest Plan” provides for protection of areas that could contribute to the recovery of fish and improve aquatic habitat and water quality through out the basin. The 1994 “Northwest Forest Plan” also provides general guidance on implementation and effectiveness monitoring.

Federal aquatic habitat within western Oregon, Washington, and northern California falls under the 1994 “Northwest Forest Plan” guidance and aquatic conservation strategy objectives, which include:

• Establish watershed and riparian goals and objectives to maintain and restore fish habitat;

• Delineate riparian management areas and a system of key watersheds to protect fish habitat;

• Provide standards and guides for management in riparian areas; and

• Calls for watershed analysis and sub basin reviews to set priorities and provide guidance on priorities for watershed restoration.

Description of Potential Area of Critical Environmental (pg 104)

          Concern Values

An ACEC designation highlights an area where BLM special management attention is needed to protect and prevent irreparable damage to important historic, cultural, and scenic values; fish or wildlife resources; or other natural systems or processes; or to protect human life and safety from natural hazards (BLM Regulations, 43 CFR 1610).

The ACEC designation indicates to the public that the BLM not only recognizes the area possesses significant values, but has also established special management measures to protect those values. Designation serves as a reminder that the significant values or resources must be accommodated during the BLM’s consideration of subsequent management actions and land use proposals within an ACEC.

To be considered as a potential ACEC, and further analyzed in resource management plan alternatives, inventory data for the area must be analyzed to determine whether there are areas containing significant resources, values, systems or processes, or hazards. To be a potential ACEC, an area must meet both relevance and importance criteria, as established and defined in BLM Regulations, 43 CFR 1610.7-2:

Relevance. There shall be present significant historic, cultural, or scenic values; a fish or wildlife resource or other natural system or process; or natural hazard.

Importance. The above described value, resource, system, process, or hazard shall have substantial significance and values. This generally requires qualities of more than local significance and special worth, consequence, meaning, distinctiveness, or cause for concern.  A natural hazard can be important if it is a significant threat to human life or property.”

Upper Klamath River Area of Critical Environmental Concern Designation (pg 106)

The “Klamath Falls Resource Area Record of Decision and Resource Area Management Plan” (1995) designated an ACEC in the Klamath River Canyon from rim to rim extending from J.C. Boyle Powerhouse to the Oregon/California state line (see Map 2). The presence of cultural (both prehistoric and Native American traditional use) values, scenic values, fish and wildlife (both populations and habitat) resources, and a natural process or system (both priority plant species and vegetation) were found to be both relevant and important.

Management guidance outlined in the 1995 resource management plan specified that this area is not available for planned timber harvest, limited off-highway vehicle use to designated roads, allowed no developments to enhance the potential for grazing, limited mineral leasing to no surface occupancy, and allowed no hydroelectric development. The area was to be managed for semi-primitive motorized recreation opportunities. A site-specific management plan for this ACEC will be developed as part of the final river plan.

Potential Areas of Critical Environmental Concern

This plan will also evaluate extending the existing ACEC to Segment 1 (below J.C. Boyle Dam to the powerhouse) of the planning area. To be considered as a potential ACEC, an analysis and evaluation report must consider the relevance and importance of resource values identified within the area which has be nominated as an ACEC. This report is found in Appendix I.