Details the cultural, physical and spiritual importance of salmon to the Klamath River's indigenous peoples and the needed restoration of their riparian habitat by removing outdated dams after 2006 FERC license expires.

For several hundreds of years the Klamath River delta was the home of the Yurok people. Further upstream along the Klamath lived the Hupa and Karuk. Continuing inland and north towards Oregon, the Klamath and Modoc lived near the headwaters of the Klamath. Today the land near the Klamath River delta continues to be home to the Yuroks, though the size of their original land base has been decreased from earlier times by European settlers. The Karuk, Hupa, Modocs and Klamath tribes also continue to live along the Klamath yet all have smaller land bases. The remaining Modoc were either relocated to Oklahoma or joined the Klamath in Oregon. Living near the Klamath River led to adaptations and a culture and religion based on the river's many life forms. This report will focus mostly on the Yurok, though all the tribes who live along the Klamath depend on salmon for their culture and physical survival.

The differences in language between the Yurok, Hupa and Karuk existed independently of their genetic kinship based on their location and interactions along the Klamath River ecosystem. The Yurok speak a Ritwan language (Algonquian phyla), the Hupa a Tinneh or northern Na-Dene language (Athabaskan), and the Karuk a Yuman dialect of the Hokan language (Forbes, 176). The word Yurok means "downriver" in the Karuk language, indicating their location on the Klamath delta. Based on salmon as a shared ecological resource, the cultural similarities of salmon were more important than language differences.

Focal to the Yurok and other Klamath tribe's cultural lifestyle is the salmon, an anadromous fish that migrates up and down the Klamath River every year. Other anadromous fish like sturgeon and eel also were important components of the Yurok lifestyle and culture. Large intricate baskets are woven out of reeds and plant fibers to catch the eel with bait inside. The inwards curving opening prevents the eel from escaping. Anadromous fish share the trait of living their adult lives in cold saltwater and their return spawning and egg to juvenile years far up the river tributaries in fresh cold water. The yearly return of the spawning salmon to their river of birth symbolizes the cycle of renewal for the Yuroks. The other tribes living further upstream along the Klamath also share this view. The salmon provide both physical and spiritual nourishment for the Klamath River tribes (Yurok Tribal Newsletter).

Several species of salmon use this waterway, the chinook, coho and steelhead. The salmon migrate upstream in seasonal runs to spawn, or mate. The eggs hatch as small salmon, called fry, which depend on the shelter and cold water of the many tributaries that feed the Klamath. After a short time the fry become juveniles and swim downstream to complete their adult life in the ocean. These same salmon will return to the same river they were born in to spawn and complete their life cycle. In addition to salmon, sturgeon, eel and other migratory fish were integral components of Yurok diet and culture.

The Yurok know the salmon as themselves, there is no separation between human and fish. You are what you eat is taken at face value. The culture of the Yurok revolves around the seasonal migrations of the spring, summer, fall and winter runs of salmon. There are specific ceremonies performed before, during and after the migration. Honor and gratitude are shown to the salmon for providing the Yurok with nutrition for survival. Celebrations occur simultaneously with the salmon's return and the salmon who are caught are smoked on alder sticks. Salmon contain every nutritional element and mineral needed by the body for survival. Without the salmon, there would be no Yurok. This also goes for the other tribes along the Klamath, depending on salmon for nutritional sustenance and cultural relevancy.

Since the arrival of European immigrants into California the Klamath River is no longer found in the same condition. At 840 feet at crest, Clear Lake dam was the first salmon blocking dam completed in 1910. The conditions of the slower velocity of the river trapped behind the dam also effect the juvenile salmon's health by raising water temperatures and depleting oxygen content from eutrophication. The process of eutrophication begins with excess nitrogen or other fertilizers entering into slow moving water promoting excess algae growth, the dead algae is decomposed by bacteria that require oxygen. This oxygen is removed from the water by bacteria at the expense of the fish. Scientific research shows a correlation between dams, slower river velocity and eutrophication (Karuk Tribal Newsletter).

Other concrete dams were constructed along the Klamath river a few decades after the Modoc war of 1872-3, when the outnumbered Modocs led by Kentipoos (Captain Jack) held their ground in the lava beds against the US military. The incursion of settlers into northern California also had drawn the Hupa and Karuk into battle for a five year war from 1858 - 64 (Forbes, pg. 75). The outnumbered Modocs were defeated and relocated to Oklahoma after a long battle in the volcanic highlands near the Klamath headwaters. In 1882, following the forced relocation of the Modoc, irrigation was begun in the Klamath basin. Within a few decades the high desert ecosystem and natural wetlands of the Klamath Basin was then almost completely converted to agriculture use that required larger amounts of water for irrigation. The water for irrigation was diverted from the Klamath River to the fields in the high desert Klamath Basin. The large ancient inland wetland called Tule Lake was shrunken down to five times less than its original size. Previously home to migratory waterfowl, Tule Lake is now primarily a potato farm and stagnant lake experiencing frequent eutrophication. Before drainage, Tule Lake also gradually supplied the Klamath River with extra water during the hot summer months. The combination of dams, water diversions and the drainage of Tule Lake resulted in less water available throughout the year. Higher water temperatures, slower water velocity and other physical barriers to salmon survival and reproduction are the result of lower water levels in the river. The amount of water now present in the Klamath is far less than previously available before these human made alterations, and has consistently shown to negatively impact the salmon runs. Fertilizer runoff from agriculture and higher water temperatures contribute to frequent toxic algae blooms like Mycrocyctis aeruginosa. (Karuk Tribal Newsletter) The death and decomposition of large amounts of algae causes eutrophication, the removal of oxygen from the water. With less oxygen available and warmer water temperatures, the salmon's breathing becomes slower and their time in the river until reaching the ocean takes longer. This makes them susceptible to gill rot, the primary cause of the 80,000 plus fish kill a few years ago. The modern day Yuroks have joined together with neighboring tribes, the Karuk, Hupa, Klamath and any remaining Modocs to advocate for decommissioning the Klamath River dams when their FERC license expires in 2006. Many researchers and tribal members believe that removal of the Klamath dams will greatly improve the habitat and population numbers of the salmon.

Barry Wayne McCovey Jr. is a Yurok tribal member and tribal fisheries biologist who is spreading the message that the survival of the Klamath salmon and the Yurok people depends on the removal of the Klamath dams. He states that replacing the native salmon with fish hatchery salmon won't return the same results to his people;

Arguments that dismiss the magnitude and future impact of this fish kill sicken the spirit. It may as well be said that Yurok people could just die off because other native and non-native people could easily replace us and thrive in our traditional homeland. Native fish, not hatchery fish, are the only hope for the future of the species.

Without a doubt, the native chinook, coho and steel-head are endangered (McCovey Jr., Indian Country Today)

The reasons for this involve the health of the salmon as a species, their genetic makeup is different from hatchery raised fish, who are often not as resistant to disease as native river raised fish.

The Yurok and other tribes of the Klamath River had specific times and seasonal celebrations to mark the timing of the salmons' return to the Klamath. The tribes in the interior were at a slight disadvantage if the coastal Yurok overfished salmon before they migrated further upstream. To prevent conflict with the other tribes that shared the Klamath the Yurok places restrictions on their harvest and waited their turn to harvest. This ensured an equal distribution amongst the tribes and reduced needless conflicts from one tribe hoarding salmon and another group starving.

The First Salmon Ritual practiced by the Yurok ensured that the salmon were treated with respect and reverence. The person catching the salmon would first fast and purify himself by sweating or meditating, than begin the process of approaching the salmon in water. Slowly encircling the salmon with the net, he would ask the salmon permission first before killing it. The salmon would respond by floating in certain patterns. Then he would gently raise the salmon above the water and lay it on the riverbank, splitting it open with a sharp stone blade. If this ritual was performed according to the traditional guidelines, the Yurok were ensured an ample harvest throughout the season. (Yurok Tribal Newsletter)

The First Salmon Ritual is continued today by certain members of the Yurok Nation. People like Barry McCovey Jr. focus on reminding the Yurok today that their culture and nutritional health continues to depend on the salmon. What scientists have noticed in the recent years is the increase in the rates of diabetes among the Yurok and other indigenous peoples who have replaced their indigenous food source with refined flours and sugars imported from processed food corporations. The issue is long term health of the ecosystem and the long term physical, spiritual and cultural health of the people, each are intertwined and interdependent. Finding evidence of cultural fragmentation is not as easy to prove as evidence of physical deterioration from lack of healthy diet. If the Yurok were able to restore the salmon and increase salmon in their diet, then the incidents of diabetes, heart disease and obesity would decrease. This statement is based on known scientific evidence linking the increased risk of diabetes from presence of refined flour and sugar products in their diet. Kari Norgaard, a graduate student at UC Davis, states in her report about the effects of altered diet on the health of the neighboring Karuk;

"The Karuk people are currently denied access to a significant percentage of their traditional foods. If these foods are obtainable they are available in reduced quantity and quality. Most glaring is the loss of several entire runs of salmon and the considerable decrease in all salmonid populations." (Norgaard, UC Davis)

She continues to describe the nutritional benefits of salmon in the diet, specifically focusing on the Omega-3 essential fatty acids found in salmon that are shown to reduce risk of heart disease. Combined with acorns, another traditional food source, salmon makes a complete protein. She cites a study from 1993 by Joe & Young that indicates a loss of traditional diet increases prevalence of "diabetes, obesity, heart disease, tuberculosis, hypertension, kidney troubles and strokes" in indigenous people. The rate of diabetes for the Karuk tribe is now twice the national average. Since the diet of the Karuk and Yurok are almost identical, it follows that the same rate of diabetes goes for the Yurok.

In conclusion, the best outcome for the physical, spiritual and cultural health of the tribes living along the Klamath River would be the removal of the dams on the Klamath River that currently prevent the safe passage of their traditional source of nutrition and cultural identity, the salmon. After removal of the Klamath River dams, the health of the river ecosystem will once again be capable of supporting large amounts of salmon that can ensure the long term survival of the Klamath tribes; Yurok, Hupa, Karuk, Klamath and Modoc.



References;
Yurok Tribal Home Page (2004) "Background Information", Klamath, CA Yurok Tribal Council  http://www.yuroktribe.org/culture/history/history.htm

Forbes, Jack D. (1982) "Native Americans of California and Nevada" Happy Camp, California Naturegraph Publishers Inc.

McCovey Jr., Barry Wayne / Yurok Tribal Fisheries Dept. (Oct 4 2002) "For the Yurok, Salmon is Everything" Canastota, NY Indian Country Today
http://www.indiancountry.com/content.cfm?id=1033740988

Karuk Tribal Newsletter (2004) "Press Releases: Bring Home Salmon Campaign" Happy Camp, CA Karuk Tribal Council http://www.karuk.us/press%20&%20campaigns/press.php

Beckman, Tad (1997) "Indian Origin Stories" Claremont, CA Harvey Mudd College
http://www4.hmc.edu:8001/humanities/indian/ca/ch01.htm

Bearss, Edwin C. (1969, reprinted 1982) 'Redwood National Park: History Basic Data; I:Indians of the Redwoods" Redwoods National Park U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Division of History, Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/redw/history1a.htm

Oswalt, Wendell (Jul 2001) "This Land Was Theirs: A Study of Native Americans" [7th Edition.] Oxford University Press

Kari Marie Norgaard, Ph.D. (August 2004) "The Effects of Altered Diet on the Health of the Karuk People" Davis, CA UC Davis Graduate Research
Website addresses;  http://johnmuir.ucdavis.edu/activities/salmon-n-tribes.html

http://www.friendsoftheriver.org/PressRoom/PDF/HealthEffectsofAlteredDiet.pdf

Native American Language Index;
http://www.native-languages.org/yurok.htm